debriefing psychology experiment example

Debriefing in Psychology: Sample Studies & Protocol

Dave Cornell (PhD)

Dr. Cornell has worked in education for more than 20 years. His work has involved designing teacher certification for Trinity College in London and in-service training for state governments in the United States. He has trained kindergarten teachers in 8 countries and helped businessmen and women open baby centers and kindergartens in 3 countries.

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Chris Drew (PhD)

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Debriefing refers to the procedure for revealing the true purpose of a psychological study to a research participant at the conclusion of a research session.

In order to examine authentic behavior, it is sometimes necessary to tell participants that the study is about one subject, when in fact it is about something else. This is called deception.

If researchers explained the true purpose of a study, then some participants will act in a way that undermines the study’s validity. For example, participants may engage in impression management strategies to make themselves appear in a favorable light.

Thus, the need for deception.

Ethics of Debriefing

Elements of deception must be approved before researchers begin data collection.

This is accomplished through a university Institutional Review Board (IRB), which is responsible for overseeing all research involving human participants.

The researchers fill out extensive forms, thoroughly explain the rationale for deception and the debriefing protocol, and supply a copy of the Debriefing Form.

The American Psychological Association states that psychologists should explain:

“…the nature, results, and conclusions of the research … [and] take reasonable steps to correct any misconceptions that participants may have” (p. 1070).

If the IRB approves the study, data collection can commence. If the study is not approved, researchers may alter their procedures and resubmit.

The Debriefing Protocol and Form

Every debriefing includes a set procedure that must be approved by the IRB. There are many required components, plus a Debriefing Form, which may or may not have to be signed by each participant, depending on the university.

The standard components of the form include:

• Thanking the participant for their time and involvement.
• Recapping the tasks and stated purpose of the study.
• Clarification of the study’s use of deception and revealing its true purpose.
• Stating that the participant can withdraw their data, without penalty.
• A request asking the participant’s permission to use their data.
• Provide contact information for university counselling services.
• Provide contact information of the researcher.
• Explain that they may receive a full copy of the research paper when completed.
• Provide contact information for the university’s Institutional Review Board.
• Provide two references of similar research.

Click here for the debriefing template at Pepperdine University, or here for a sample debriefing statement.

About The Institutional Review Board (IRB)

The IRB is an independent entity established to protect the rights of human research participants. Any organization in the United States that receives federal funding must have an IRB that is registered with the Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP) and complies with the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) Protection of Human Subjects regulations, 45 CFR part 46 .      

The IRB is comprised of research peers at the university where the research will be conducted.

Researchers submit their application for approval to the IRB before commencing data collection.

The IRB has the authority to:

• Approve, disapprove, or terminate a study
• Require researchers modify procedures
• Require additional information be provided to participants on the Informed Consent Form ( basic elements and sample )

Typically, the IRB will meet once a month to review applications and discuss relevant issues. Members will have already received copies of submitted applications prior to the meeting. If approved, official notification will be delivered to the principal investigator.

If there are any substantial changes in the research protocol, the IRB must be informed and an amended application may be required.

Infamous Studies Demonstrating the Need for Quality Debriefing

1. the milgram shock study.

In 1961, Dr. Stanley Milgram of Yale university conducted one of the most influential, and controversial, experiments in psychology.

Milgram’s studied deceived participants by telling them the study was about punishment and learning. The true purpose was to investigate the power of authority.

During the study, real participants were instructed to administer increasingly high levels of shock to another participant (actually an actor). As the actor began to object and expressed severe pain, the researcher insisted they continue administering shock.

Video recordings of the participants clearly showed they were under severe duress. 

The study was heavily criticized for both the use of deception and psychological duress endured by participants.

According to Harris (1988), Milgram:

“…explained that he had arranged a ‘friendly reconciliation’ between each subject and the accomplice…convincingly explained the importance of research on obedience…used both an interview and follow-up questionnaire to verify subjects’ positive opinion of the research” (pp. 196-197).

Milgram’s study became a key impetus to the formalization of ethical standards in psychological research .

2. Bystander Intervention

In the 1960’s, there were no formalized procedures regarding the use of deception or debriefing. Researchers were entrusted to engage in ethical behavior in the name of professionalism .

The mindset regarding deception and debriefing is illustrated in the famous study by Darley and Latané (1968) on “ the bystander effect .”

The study examined how the number of people witnessing a person in distress would influence their attempt to intervene.

Of course, if researchers explained this purpose at the beginning of the study, the results would hardly be valid.

Here is the deception:

“It was explained to him that he was to take part in a discussion about personal problems associated with college life and that the discussion would be held over the intercom system, rather than face-to-face, in order to avoid embarrassment by preserving the anonymity of the subjects” (p. 378).

At the end of each session, debriefing occurred:

“As soon as the subject reported the emergency, or after 6 minutes had elapsed, the experimental assistant disclosed the true nature of the experiment, and dealt with any emotions aroused in the subject” (p. 379).

The debriefing procedure was quite minimal: no forms to respond to, no permissions requested, no contact information provided.

Debriefing Effects

Research on misinformation often requires deception. Debriefing usually involves a detailed explanation regarding the dangers of misinformation. Does that help? Do participants then become less susceptible to misinformation?

Greenspan and Loftus (2022) had participants watch a video that depicted a crime. Leading questions were used to suggest that the victim’s jacket was gray, even though it was red.

The leading questions had their usual effect. A majority of participants recalled the jacket as gray.

Then, two types of debriefings were administered.

In the control condition, participants were thanked and reminded about Session 2. In the misinformation condition, the role of misinformation in the study was revealed and participants were reminded about Session 2.

The results of Session 2 showed:

“…that a misinformation effect can persist after debriefing. Five days after debriefing, the majority of participants who endorsed the misinformation at Session 1 continued to do so postdebriefing” (p. 706).

So, even though debriefing informed participants about the leading questions in the study, the misinformation effect persisted.

Debriefing Examples

• At the end of the experimental session, the experimenter thanked the participants for their time, clarified the use of deception and rationale, and distributed the Debriefing Forms.
• After being told the study was about memory and commercials, at the end of the study, participants were told that the study was actually about the effects of physically attractive actors on consumer attitudes.
• Since the participant seemed to be in a slightly depressed mood after receiving negative feedback in the low-self-esteem condition, the experimenter highlighted the contact information for the university’s counselling center on the Debriefing Form.
• Participants were initially told the study was about IQ tests. After the study, participants were told the study was really about the effects of different aromas on cognitive performance, which explains the presence of an essential oils diffuser in the room.
• At the end of the data-collection session, one participant indicated they did not want their data to be used. So, the experimenter immediately deleted their survey responses from the computer.
• After participants completed a job simulation, the experimenter collecting the data explained that the real purpose of the study was to examine the types of functional statements made during group decision-making.
• One participant did not appreciate being “lied to” during the study. The experimenter did their best to explain the rationale for deception and then highlighted the IRB’s contact information on the Debriefing Form.  
• The experimenter explained to participants that the study was about mate selection. So, they would be rating photos of faces in terms of physical attractiveness. However, the study was actually designed to correlate facial markers of testosterone and perceived leadership ability.
• During debriefing, the experimenter answered all questions the participant had about the study and asked for permission to use their data.
• After collecting observational data during home visits, the researchers explained to parents that the study wasn’t actually about how children play. The study was really about types of parental discipline and children’s socio-emotional development.   

Debriefing occurs at the end of each participant’s involvement in a study. There are numerous key components of the debriefing session, including clarifying any elements of deception and allowing participants to have their data deleted.

The purpose of debriefing is to ensure that participants are treated fairly, with dignity, and ensure they experience no enduring ill effects. The APA (2002) states that if researchers are “aware that research procedures have harmed a participant, they take reasonable steps to minimize the harm” (p. 1070).

There was a time in psychological research when debriefing was not required. However, historical events and the famous Milgram study sparked discussion and eventually a formal protocol was established.

Today, all studies must be pre-approved by an IRB before data is collected.

American Psychological Association. (2002). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. American Psychologist, 57(12), 1060–1073. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.57.12.1060

Arslan, R. (2018). A Review on Ethical Issues and Rules in Psychological Assessment. Journal of Family, Counseling and Education, 3, 17-29. https://doi.org/10.32568/jfce.310629

Darley, J. M., & Latané, B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies: diffusion of responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8(4), 377-383.

Greenspan, R. L., & Loftus, E. F. (2022). What happens after debriefing? The effectiveness and benefits of postexperimental debriefing. Memory & Cognition, 50(4), 696-709.

Harris, B. (1988). Key words: A history of debriefing in social psychology. In J. Morawski (Ed.), The rise of experimentation in American psychology (pp. 188-212). New York: Oxford University Press.

Milgram, S. (1965). Some conditions of obedience and disobedience to authority. Human Relations, 18(1), 57–76.

The British Psychological Society. (2010). Code of Human Research Ethics. www.bps.org.uk/sites/default/files/documents/code_of_human_research_ethics.pdf

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Debriefing: Psychology Definition, History & Examples

Debriefing, in the context of psychology, refers to a structured or semi-structured conversational technique that is often employed following the completion of an experimental task or traumatic event. Its primary purpose is to elucidate and mitigate the psychological impact experienced by participants, ensuring that they depart from the study or situation with a clear understanding of the events and any potential misconceptions addressed.

Historically, debriefing has evolved as an ethical imperative, particularly within psychological research, to safeguard the well-being of subjects. This practice is rooted in the aftermath of World War II, gaining prominence with the increased scrutiny of experimental ethics.

Examples of debriefing range from post-experimental discussions in academic research to critical incident stress debriefings in emergency services.

This introduction will explore the nuances and applications of debriefing within psychological practice.

Table of Contents

Debriefing in psychology is a structured conversation that happens after a research study or therapy session. Its purpose is to talk about the experience and make sure the participants are okay. It’s an important part of ethical research, especially when there’s deception involved.

Debriefing involves discussing the true nature of the study, assessing any potential harm, and getting feedback from participants. It helps improve research methods and shows respect for individuals.

The concept of debriefing in psychological research originated in the mid-20th century, as researchers recognized the need to address potential negative effects of experimental participation. The initial use of debriefing was relatively informal, with researchers informally mitigating any harm or distress caused by their experiments. However, as ethical considerations in psychological research gained prominence, the practice of debriefing became more structured and essential.

One significant event that contributed to the evolution of debriefing was the revelation of studies such as the Milgram experiment on obedience to authority figures. This study, conducted by Stanley Milgram in the early 1960s, raised ethical concerns about the potential psychological harm experienced by participants who were deceived about the true nature of the experiment. In response to this and similar studies, researchers recognized the need for a systematic approach to inform participants post-study, especially in experiments involving deception.

Key figures associated with the development of debriefing include Stanley Milgram himself, who brought attention to the importance of addressing potential harm to participants, and the American Psychological Association (APA). The APA, a prominent organization in the field of psychology, played a crucial role in establishing debriefing as a standard ethical requirement in psychological research. They developed guidelines and protocols for debriefing, aiming to maintain transparency and protect the psychological well-being of research subjects.

Over time, empirical evidence supporting the efficacy of debriefing in achieving its goals further entrenched its use in modern psychological methodologies. Studies have shown that debriefing can help participants understand the true purpose of the study, address any misconceptions or emotional reactions, and provide closure , thus minimizing potential harm and promoting ethical research practices.

• Imagine you are participating in a survey about consumer preferences. After completing the survey, the researcher sits down with you to explain the purpose of the study and how your responses will be used. This debriefing session helps ensure that you fully understand the purpose of the survey and that your privacy is protected.
• Let’s say you are involved in a workplace training program. At the end of the program, the trainer gathers everyone together for a debriefing session. During this session, the trainer discusses the goals of the training, the skills you have learned, and how they can be applied in your job. This debriefing session helps reinforce what you have learned and allows you to ask any questions you may have.
• Consider a situation where you are a participant in a psychology experiment. After completing the experiment, the researcher takes the time to explain the true purpose of the study and how your data will be used. This debriefing session helps ensure that you are fully informed about the research and that any potential deception used during the study is clarified.
• Let’s say you are part of a focus group for a new product. After providing your feedback, the moderator gathers everyone together for a debriefing session. During this session, the moderator explains how your feedback will be used to improve the product and what the next steps in the development process are. This debriefing session helps ensure that you understand the impact of your input and how it will be utilized.

Related Terms

Within the context of psychological research, terms such as ‘informed consent,’ ‘deception,’ and ‘ethical clearance’ are closely linked with the process of debriefing.

Informed consent is a prerequisite that ensures participants are willingly engaging in research with a full understanding of potential risks and the nature of the study. It is a process that involves providing participants with all the necessary information about the study, including its purpose, procedures, potential risks and benefits, and their rights as participants. Informed consent helps to protect participants’ autonomy and ensures their voluntary participation.

Deception, on the other hand, involves intentionally withholding information or providing false information to participants and is utilized in certain studies to prevent bias. Researchers may use deception to create specific experimental conditions or to prevent demand characteristics, where participants alter their behavior based on their perception of the study’s purpose. However, it is crucial that deception is justified and that participants are fully debriefed afterward, to ensure that any potential harm caused by deception is minimized and participants’ rights are respected.

Ethical clearance is a mandatory approval obtained from an ethics committee or institutional review board, signifying that the proposed research meets ethical standards, including those related to debriefing. It involves a thorough evaluation of the research design, potential risks and benefits, and the procedures for obtaining informed consent and debriefing. Ethical clearance ensures that researchers adhere to ethical guidelines and principles, protecting the welfare and rights of participants.

Together, these terms emphasize the importance of ethical considerations in psychological research. Informed consent, deception, ethical clearance, and debriefing are interconnected processes that aim to protect participants, maintain the integrity of the research, and ensure that the study is conducted ethically.

While informed consent provides participants with information and allows them to make an informed decision, deception is used sparingly and requires debriefing to address any potential harm caused. Ethical clearance serves as an overarching approval process that ensures the research adheres to ethical standards, including the appropriate use of debriefing.

In accordance with scholarly standards, the following references provide a comprehensive overview of the theoretical underpinnings, historical context, and practical examples of debriefing in psychological research. These sources have been selected for their academic credibility and have contributed significantly to the knowledge and understanding of debriefing in psychology. They are considered reputable and provide a solid foundation for further reading and exploration of the topic.

• American Psychological Association. (2017). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index
• Foa, E. B., & Riggs, D. S. (1993). Posttraumatic stress disorder following assault: Theoretical considerations and empirical findings. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2(6), 203-206. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.ep10770953
• Koocher, G. P., & Keith-Spiegel, P. (2016). Ethics in psychology and the mental health professions: Standards and cases (4th ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
• Resick, P. A., Monson, C. M., & Chard, K. M. (2016). Cognitive processing therapy for PTSD: A comprehensive manual. New York, NY: Guilford Publications.
• Rubin, D. C., & Berntsen, D. (2003). Life scripts help to maintain autobiographical memories of highly positive, but not highly negative, events. Memory & Cognition , 31(1), 1-14. doi:10.3758/BF03196082

These references encompass a range of seminal works, ethical guidelines, and empirical research studies that have contributed to the understanding and practice of debriefing in psychology. They provide a solid foundation for further exploration and study of this topic.

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Debriefing Psychology: Exploring the Process, Benefits, and Controversies

When the dust settles and the adrenaline subsides, the psychological aftermath of a crisis can be just as daunting as the event itself, but debriefing has emerged as a powerful tool to help individuals and groups navigate the complex emotional landscape in the wake of trauma. This process, rooted in the field of psychology, has become an essential component in various contexts, from military operations to workplace incidents. But what exactly is psychological debriefing, and how did it come to play such a crucial role in our understanding of trauma recovery?

Psychological debriefing, in its essence, is a structured intervention designed to mitigate the psychological impact of traumatic events. It’s a bit like hitting the pause button on life’s chaotic reel, allowing participants to process their experiences in a safe, controlled environment. Imagine a group of firefighters, fresh from battling a devastating blaze, sitting in a circle, sharing their thoughts and emotions. That’s debriefing in action.

The concept of debriefing isn’t new – it’s been around since World War II when military leaders recognized the need to help soldiers process their combat experiences. However, it wasn’t until the 1970s that psychologist Jeffrey Mitchell formalized the process, developing what we now know as Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD). Since then, debriefing has evolved and expanded, finding its way into various fields and contexts.

Today, debriefing in psychology is more than just a post-crisis tool. It’s a versatile approach used in research, clinical trials, and even everyday workplace scenarios. Its importance lies in its ability to provide immediate support, foster group cohesion, and potentially prevent long-term psychological issues. But like any psychological intervention, it’s not without its controversies and debates.

The Psychological Debriefing Process: Unpacking the Emotional Baggage

So, how does this debriefing thing actually work? Well, it’s not as simple as sitting down for a chat over coffee. Psychological debriefing is a structured process with distinct stages, each designed to guide participants through the emotional minefield of trauma recovery.

Typically, a debriefing session kicks off with an introduction phase. This is where the facilitator sets the ground rules, explains the process, and creates a safe space for sharing. It’s like preparing the soil before planting seeds – essential for growth.

Next comes the fact phase. Participants are encouraged to describe the traumatic event from their perspective. It’s not about creating a police report; it’s about allowing each person to voice their experience without judgment. This stage can be emotionally charged, as memories are still fresh and raw.

The thought phase follows, where participants share their initial thoughts during the incident. This is where you might hear statements like, “I thought we were all going to die,” or “I couldn’t believe this was happening.” It’s a crucial step in processing the cognitive aspects of the trauma.

Then comes the reaction phase – often the most emotionally intense part of the debriefing. Participants discuss their emotional responses to the event. Tears might flow, anger might surface, and that’s okay. This phase is about acknowledging and validating these intense feelings.

The symptom phase involves discussing any physical or psychological symptoms experienced since the event. This could range from sleepless nights to sudden outbursts of anger. It’s an important step in normalizing these reactions and identifying potential red flags for more serious issues.

Finally, the education and re-entry phases focus on coping strategies and preparing participants to return to their normal routines. It’s like equipping them with a psychological toolkit for the road ahead.

Throughout this process, the facilitator plays a crucial role. They’re not there to provide therapy or counseling, but to guide the conversation, ensure everyone feels heard, and provide information about normal stress reactions. It’s a delicate balance of empathy and professionalism.

While group debriefing is common, individual sessions can also be beneficial, especially for those who might feel uncomfortable sharing in a group setting. The choice between group and individual debriefing often depends on the specific situation and the needs of the participants.

Applications of Psychological Debriefing: From Battlefields to Boardrooms

The versatility of psychological debriefing is truly remarkable. It’s like a Swiss Army knife in the world of mental health interventions, finding applications in diverse contexts.

In crisis intervention and trauma management, debriefing is often used as a first-line response. Picture a community reeling from a natural disaster – debriefing sessions can provide immediate support and help prevent the development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

The military and first responder communities have long recognized the value of debriefing. For soldiers returning from combat or paramedics after a particularly harrowing call, debriefing offers a chance to process their experiences and maintain psychological readiness for future missions.

But debriefing isn’t just for life-or-death situations. In the workplace, it can be a valuable tool following incidents or accidents. Imagine a factory where a serious accident has occurred. Debriefing sessions can help employees process the event, address safety concerns, and maintain team cohesion.

Even in the world of research and clinical trials, debriefing plays a crucial role. It’s used to gather qualitative data, ensure ethical treatment of participants, and provide closure after potentially stressful experiments. It’s a bit like tidying up after a scientific exploration of the human psyche.

Benefits and Potential Outcomes: The Healing Power of Debriefing

The potential benefits of psychological debriefing are as varied as its applications. At its core, debriefing aims to facilitate emotional processing and stress reduction. It’s like opening a pressure valve, allowing pent-up emotions to be released in a controlled manner.

One of the key benefits is cognitive restructuring and meaning-making. Trauma can shatter our assumptions about the world and our place in it. Debriefing provides a framework for rebuilding these mental models, helping participants make sense of their experiences and find meaning in the chaos.

In group settings, debriefing can foster cohesion and social support. There’s something powerful about sharing experiences with others who’ve been through the same ordeal. It’s a reminder that you’re not alone in your struggles, and that can be incredibly comforting.

Perhaps most importantly, effective debriefing may help prevent long-term psychological issues. By addressing trauma head-on in its immediate aftermath, debriefing aims to nip potential problems in the bud. It’s like psychological immunization – a bit uncomfortable in the moment, but potentially life-saving in the long run.

Controversies and Criticisms: The Debriefing Debate

As with many psychological interventions, debriefing isn’t without its critics. In fact, it’s been the subject of heated debate in the mental health community for years. These psychology debates often center around the efficacy of debriefing in preventing PTSD and other long-term psychological issues.

Some studies have suggested that mandatory debriefing for all individuals exposed to trauma might not be as effective as once thought. In some cases, it might even be harmful, potentially interfering with natural recovery processes or inadvertently re-traumatizing participants.

The timing and appropriateness of debriefing interventions have also been questioned. Is it always beneficial to immediately process a traumatic event, or might some individuals benefit from a period of natural recovery first? These are the kinds of psychological debate topics that keep researchers and clinicians up at night.

Critics have also pointed out that debriefing might not be suitable for everyone. What works for a seasoned firefighter might not be appropriate for a civilian caught in a traumatic event. This has led to discussions about the need for more personalized approaches to post-trauma interventions.

In light of these concerns, alternative approaches to psychological first aid have been developed. These often focus on practical support, promoting safety and comfort, and connecting individuals with appropriate resources rather than immediately delving into emotional processing.

Best Practices and Future Directions: Refining the Art of Debriefing

Despite the controversies, psychological debriefing remains a widely used tool in various contexts. The key lies in implementing it effectively and appropriately. Guidelines for effective psychological debriefing emphasize the importance of voluntary participation, appropriate timing, and skilled facilitation.

Training and qualifications for debriefers have become increasingly important. It’s not enough to simply follow a script – effective debriefing requires a deep understanding of trauma psychology and group dynamics. It’s a bit like being a psychological air traffic controller, guiding participants safely through turbulent emotional airspace.

The future of debriefing likely lies in its integration with other therapeutic approaches. Rather than being seen as a standalone intervention, it’s increasingly viewed as part of a broader toolkit for trauma recovery. This might involve combining debriefing with cognitive-behavioral therapy, mindfulness practices, or other evidence-based treatments.

Emerging research continues to refine our understanding of debriefing’s effectiveness and best practices. From exploring the neurobiological impacts of debriefing to investigating cultural differences in trauma processing, there’s still much to learn in this field.

As we continue to grapple with the psychological impacts of crises – from global pandemics to climate disasters – the role of debriefing in mental health is likely to evolve. It’s a reminder that psychology in everyday life is not just about understanding the mind, but about developing practical tools to support mental wellbeing in the face of adversity.

In conclusion, psychological debriefing remains a powerful, if sometimes controversial, tool in the mental health arsenal. Its ability to provide immediate support, foster group cohesion, and potentially prevent long-term psychological issues makes it a valuable resource in various contexts. However, like any psychological intervention, it must be applied judiciously and with a clear understanding of its potential benefits and limitations.

As we continue to face new challenges and crises, the importance of effective psychological support becomes ever more apparent. Debriefing, with its focus on processing traumatic experiences and fostering resilience, will likely continue to play a crucial role in this landscape. However, it’s clear that ongoing research and refinement are needed to ensure that we’re providing the most effective support possible to those grappling with the psychological aftermath of trauma.

The journey of understanding and improving psychological debriefing is far from over. It’s a testament to the dynamic nature of psychology – a field that continues to evolve as we gain new insights into the human mind and its remarkable capacity for resilience and recovery. As we move forward, the goal remains clear: to provide compassionate, effective support to those navigating the turbulent waters of trauma recovery, helping them find their way back to calmer seas.

References:

1. Mitchell, J. T. (1983). When disaster strikes: The critical incident stress debriefing process. Journal of Emergency Medical Services, 8(1), 36-39.

2. Rose, S., Bisson, J., Churchill, R., & Wessely, S. (2002). Psychological debriefing for preventing post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (2).

3. Everly Jr, G. S., Flannery Jr, R. B., & Mitchell, J. T. (2000). Critical incident stress management (CISM): A review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 5(1), 23-40.

4. Tuckey, M. R., & Scott, J. E. (2014). Group critical incident stress debriefing with emergency services personnel: a randomized controlled trial. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 27(1), 38-54.

5. World Health Organization. (2012). Psychological debriefing in people exposed to a recent traumatic event. WHO Guidelines Approved by the Guidelines Review Committee.

6. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. (2018). Post-traumatic stress disorder. NICE guideline [NG116]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng116

7. Carlier, I. V., Lamberts, R. D., Van Uchelen, A. J., & Gersons, B. P. (1998). Disaster-related post-traumatic stress in police officers: A field study of the impact of debriefing. Stress Medicine, 14(3), 143-148.

8. Dyregrov, A. (1997). The process in psychological debriefings. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 10(4), 589-605.

9. McNally, R. J., Bryant, R. A., & Ehlers, A. (2003). Does early psychological intervention promote recovery from posttraumatic stress? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4(2), 45-79.

10. Forbes, D., Lewis, V., Varker, T., Phelps, A., O’Donnell, M., Wade, D. J., … & Creamer, M. (2011). Psychological first aid following trauma: Implementation and evaluation framework for high-risk organizations. Psychiatry, 74(3), 224-239.

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