research body meaning

How to Write a Body of a Research Paper

The main part of your research paper is called “the body.” To write this important part of your paper, include only relevant information, or information that gets to the point. Organize your ideas in a logical order—one that makes sense—and provide enough details—facts and examples—to support the points you want to make.

Logical Order

Transition words and phrases, adding evidence, phrases for supporting topic sentences.

• Transition Phrases for Comparisons
• Transition Phrases for Contrast
• Transition Phrases to Show a Process
• Phrases to Introduce Examples
• Transition Phrases for Presenting Evidence

How to Make Effective Transitions

Examples of effective transitions, drafting your conclusion, writing the body paragraphs.

Academic Writing, Editing, Proofreading, And Problem Solving Services

Get 10% off with 24start discount code.

• The third and fourth paragraphs follow the same format as the second:
• Transition or topic sentence.
• Topic sentence (if not included in the first sentence).
• Supporting sentences including a discussion, quotations, or examples that support the topic sentence.
• Concluding sentence that transitions to the next paragraph.

The topic of each paragraph will be supported by the evidence you itemized in your outline. However, just as smooth transitions are required to connect your paragraphs, the sentences you write to present your evidence should possess transition words that connect ideas, focus attention on relevant information, and continue your discussion in a smooth and fluid manner.

You presented the main idea of your paper in the thesis statement. In the body, every single paragraph must support that main idea. If any paragraph in your paper does not, in some way, back up the main idea expressed in your thesis statement, it is not relevant, which means it doesn’t have a purpose and shouldn’t be there.

Each paragraph also has a main idea of its own. That main idea is stated in a topic sentence, either at the beginning or somewhere else in the paragraph. Just as every paragraph in your paper supports your thesis statement, every sentence in each paragraph supports the main idea of that paragraph by providing facts or examples that back up that main idea. If a sentence does not support the main idea of the paragraph, it is not relevant and should be left out.

A paper that makes claims or states ideas without backing them up with facts or clarifying them with examples won’t mean much to readers. Make sure you provide enough supporting details for all your ideas. And remember that a paragraph can’t contain just one sentence. A paragraph needs at least two or more sentences to be complete. If a paragraph has only one or two sentences, you probably haven’t provided enough support for your main idea. Or, if you have trouble finding the main idea, maybe you don’t have one. In that case, you can make the sentences part of another paragraph or leave them out.

Arrange the paragraphs in the body of your paper in an order that makes sense, so that each main idea follows logically from the previous one. Likewise, arrange the sentences in each paragraph in a logical order.

If you carefully organized your notes and made your outline, your ideas will fall into place naturally as you write your draft. The main ideas, which are building blocks of each section or each paragraph in your paper, come from the Roman-numeral headings in your outline. The supporting details under each of those main ideas come from the capital-letter headings. In a shorter paper, the capital-letter headings may become sentences that include supporting details, which come from the Arabic numerals in your outline. In a longer paper, the capital letter headings may become paragraphs of their own, which contain sentences with the supporting details, which come from the Arabic numerals in your outline.

In addition to keeping your ideas in logical order, transitions are another way to guide readers from one idea to another. Transition words and phrases are important when you are suggesting or pointing out similarities between ideas, themes, opinions, or a set of facts. As with any perfect phrase, transition words within paragraphs should not be used gratuitously. Their meaning must conform to what you are trying to point out, as shown in the examples below:

• “Accordingly” or “in accordance with” indicates agreement. For example :Thomas Edison’s experiments with electricity accordingly followed the theories of Benjamin Franklin, J. B. Priestly, and other pioneers of the previous century.
• “Analogous” or “analogously” contrasts different things or ideas that perform similar functions or make similar expressions. For example: A computer hard drive is analogous to a filing cabinet. Each stores important documents and data.
• “By comparison” or “comparatively”points out differences between things that otherwise are similar. For example: Roses require an alkaline soil. Azaleas, by comparison, prefer an acidic soil.
• “Corresponds to” or “correspondingly” indicates agreement or conformity. For example: The U.S. Constitution corresponds to England’s Magna Carta in so far as both established a framework for a parliamentary system.
• “Equals,”“equal to,” or “equally” indicates the same degree or quality. For example:Vitamin C is equally as important as minerals in a well-balanced diet.
• “Equivalent” or “equivalently” indicates two ideas or things of approximately the same importance, size, or volume. For example:The notions of individual liberty and the right to a fair and speedy trial hold equivalent importance in the American legal system.
• “Common” or “in common with” indicates similar traits or qualities. For example: Darwin did not argue that humans were descended from the apes. Instead, he maintained that they shared a common ancestor.
• “In the same way,”“in the same manner,”“in the same vein,” or “likewise,” connects comparable traits, ideas, patterns, or activities. For example: John Roebling’s suspension bridges in Brooklyn and Cincinnati were built in the same manner, with strong cables to support a metallic roadway. Example 2: Despite its delicate appearance, John Roebling’s Brooklyn Bridge was built as a suspension bridge supported by strong cables. Example 3: Cincinnati’s Suspension Bridge, which Roebling also designed, was likewise supported by cables.
• “Kindred” indicates that two ideas or things are related by quality or character. For example: Artists Vincent Van Gogh and Paul Gauguin are considered kindred spirits in the Impressionist Movement. “Like” or “as” are used to create a simile that builds reader understanding by comparing two dissimilar things. (Never use “like” as slang, as in: John Roebling was like a bridge designer.) For examples: Her eyes shone like the sun. Her eyes were as bright as the sun.
• “Parallel” describes events, things, or ideas that occurred at the same time or that follow similar logic or patterns of behavior. For example:The original Ocktoberfests were held to occur in parallel with the autumn harvest.
• “Obviously” emphasizes a point that should be clear from the discussion. For example: Obviously, raccoons and other wildlife will attempt to find food and shelter in suburban areas as their woodland habitats disappear.
• “Similar” and “similarly” are used to make like comparisons. For example: Horses and ponies have similar physical characteristics although, as working farm animals, each was bred to perform different functions.
• “There is little debate” or “there is consensus” can be used to point out agreement. For example:There is little debate that the polar ice caps are melting.The question is whether global warming results from natural or human-made causes.

Other phrases that can be used to make transitions or connect ideas within paragraphs include:

• Use “alternately” or “alternatively” to suggest a different option.
• Use “antithesis” to indicate a direct opposite.
• Use “contradict” to indicate disagreement.
• Use “on the contrary” or “conversely” to indicate that something is different from what it seems.
• Use “dissimilar” to point out differences between two things.
• Use “diverse” to discuss differences among many things or people.
• Use “distinct” or “distinctly” to point out unique qualities.
• Use “inversely” to indicate an opposite idea.
• Use “it is debatable,” “there is debate,” or “there is disagreement” to suggest that there is more than one opinion about a subject.
• Use “rather” or “rather than” to point out an exception.
• Use “unique” or “uniquely” to indicate qualities that can be found nowhere else.
• Use “unlike” to indicate dissimilarities.
• Use “various” to indicate more than one kind.

Writing Topic Sentences

Remember, a sentence should express a complete thought, one thought per sentence—no more, no less. The longer and more convoluted your sentences become, the more likely you are to muddle the meaning, become repetitive, and bog yourself down in issues of grammar and construction. In your first draft, it is generally a good idea to keep those sentences relatively short and to the point. That way your ideas will be clearly stated.You will be able to clearly see the content that you have put down—what is there and what is missing—and add or subtract material as it is needed. The sentences will probably seem choppy and even simplistic.The purpose of a first draft is to ensure that you have recorded all the content you will need to make a convincing argument. You will work on smoothing and perfecting the language in subsequent drafts.

Transitioning from your topic sentence to the evidence that supports it can be problematic. It requires a transition, much like the transitions needed to move from one paragraph to the next. Choose phrases that connect the evidence directly to your topic sentence.

• Consider this: (give an example or state evidence).
• If (identify one condition or event) then (identify the condition or event that will follow).
• It should go without saying that (point out an obvious condition).
• Note that (provide an example or observation).
• Take a look at (identify a condition; follow with an explanation of why you think it is important to the discussion).
• The authors had (identify their idea) in mind when they wrote “(use a quotation from their text that illustrates the idea).”
• The point is that (summarize the conclusion your reader should draw from your research).
• This becomes evident when (name the author) says that (paraphrase a quote from the author’s writing).
• We see this in the following example: (provide an example of your own).
• (The author’s name) offers the example of (summarize an example given by the author).

If an idea is controversial, you may need to add extra evidence to your paragraphs to persuade your reader. You may also find that a logical argument, one based solely on your evidence, is not persuasive enough and that you need to appeal to the reader’s emotions. Look for ways to incorporate your research without detracting from your argument.

Writing Transition Sentences

It is often difficult to write transitions that carry a reader clearly and logically on to the next paragraph (and the next topic) in an essay. Because you are moving from one topic to another, it is easy to simply stop one and start another. Great research papers, however, include good transitions that link the ideas in an interesting discussion so that readers can move smoothly and easily through your presentation. Close each of your paragraphs with an interesting transition sentence that introduces the topic coming up in the next paragraph.

Transition sentences should show a relationship between the two topics.Your transition will perform one of the following functions to introduce the new idea:

• Indicate that you will be expanding on information in a different way in the upcoming paragraph.
• Indicate that a comparison, contrast, or a cause-and-effect relationship between the topics will be discussed.
• Indicate that an example will be presented in the next paragraph.
• Indicate that a conclusion is coming up.

Transitions make a paper flow smoothly by showing readers how ideas and facts follow one another to point logically to a conclusion. They show relationships among the ideas, help the reader to understand, and, in a persuasive paper, lead the reader to the writer’s conclusion.

Each paragraph should end with a transition sentence to conclude the discussion of the topic in the paragraph and gently introduce the reader to the topic that will be raised in the next paragraph. However, transitions also occur within paragraphs—from sentence to sentence—to add evidence, provide examples, or introduce a quotation.

The type of paper you are writing and the kinds of topics you are introducing will determine what type of transitional phrase you should use. Some useful phrases for transitions appear below. They are grouped according to the function they normally play in a paper. Transitions, however, are not simply phrases that are dropped into sentences. They are constructed to highlight meaning. Choose transitions that are appropriate to your topic and what you want the reader to do. Edit them to be sure they fit properly within the sentence to enhance the reader’s understanding.

Transition Phrases for Comparisons:

• We also see
• In addition to
• Notice that
• Beside that,
• In comparison,
• Once again,
• Identically,
• For example,
• Comparatively, it can be seen that
• We see this when
• This corresponds to
• In other words,
• At the same time,
• By the same token,

Transition Phrases for Contrast:

• By contrast,
• On the contrary,
• Nevertheless,
• An exception to this would be …
• Alongside that,we find …
• On one hand … on the other hand …
• [New information] presents an opposite view …
• Conversely, it could be argued …
• Other than that,we find that …
• We get an entirely different impression from …
• One point of differentiation is …
• Further investigation shows …
• An exception can be found in the fact that …

Transition Phrases to Show a Process:

• At the top we have … Near the bottom we have …
• Here we have … There we have …
• Continuing on,
• We progress to …
• Close up … In the distance …
• With this in mind,
• Moving in sequence,
• Proceeding sequentially,
• Moving to the next step,
• First, Second,Third,…
• Examining the activities in sequence,
• Sequentially,
• As a result,
• The end result is …
• To illustrate …
• Subsequently,
• One consequence of …
• If … then …
• It follows that …
• This is chiefly due to …
• The next step …
• Later we find …

Phrases to Introduce Examples:

• For instance,
• Particularly,
• In particular,
• This includes,
• Specifically,
• To illustrate,
• One illustration is
• One example is
• This is illustrated by
• This can be seen when
• This is especially seen in
• This is chiefly seen when

Transition Phrases for Presenting Evidence:

• Another point worthy of consideration is
• At the center of the issue is the notion that
• Before moving on, it should be pointed out that
• Another important point is
• Another idea worth considering is
• Consequently,
• Especially,
• Even more important,
• Getting beyond the obvious,
• In spite of all this,
• It follows that
• It is clear that
• More importantly,
• Most importantly,

How to make effective transitions between sections of a research paper? There are two distinct issues in making strong transitions:

• Does the upcoming section actually belong where you have placed it?
• Have you adequately signaled the reader why you are taking this next step?

The first is the most important: Does the upcoming section actually belong in the next spot? The sections in your research paper need to add up to your big point (or thesis statement) in a sensible progression. One way of putting that is, “Does the architecture of your paper correspond to the argument you are making?” Getting this architecture right is the goal of “large-scale editing,” which focuses on the order of the sections, their relationship to each other, and ultimately their correspondence to your thesis argument.

It’s easy to craft graceful transitions when the sections are laid out in the right order. When they’re not, the transitions are bound to be rough. This difficulty, if you encounter it, is actually a valuable warning. It tells you that something is wrong and you need to change it. If the transitions are awkward and difficult to write, warning bells should ring. Something is wrong with the research paper’s overall structure.

After you’ve placed the sections in the right order, you still need to tell the reader when he is changing sections and briefly explain why. That’s an important part of line-by-line editing, which focuses on writing effective sentences and paragraphs.

Effective transition sentences and paragraphs often glance forward or backward, signaling that you are switching sections. Take this example from J. M. Roberts’s History of Europe . He is finishing a discussion of the Punic Wars between Rome and its great rival, Carthage. The last of these wars, he says, broke out in 149 B.C. and “ended with so complete a defeat for the Carthaginians that their city was destroyed . . . .” Now he turns to a new section on “Empire.” Here is the first sentence: “By then a Roman empire was in being in fact if not in name.”(J. M. Roberts, A History of Europe . London: Allen Lane, 1997, p. 48) Roberts signals the transition with just two words: “By then.” He is referring to the date (149 B.C.) given near the end of the previous section. Simple and smooth.

Michael Mandelbaum also accomplishes this transition between sections effortlessly, without bringing his narrative to a halt. In The Ideas That Conquered the World: Peace, Democracy, and Free Markets , one chapter shows how countries of the North Atlantic region invented the idea of peace and made it a reality among themselves. Here is his transition from one section of that chapter discussing “the idea of warlessness” to another section dealing with the history of that idea in Europe.

The widespread aversion to war within the countries of the Western core formed the foundation for common security, which in turn expressed the spirit of warlessness. To be sure, the rise of common security in Europe did not abolish war in other parts of the world and could not guarantee its permanent abolition even on the European continent. Neither, however, was it a flukish, transient product . . . . The European common security order did have historical precedents, and its principal features began to appear in other parts of the world. Precedents for Common Security The security arrangements in Europe at the dawn of the twenty-first century incorporated features of three different periods of the modern age: the nineteenth century, the interwar period, and the ColdWar. (Michael Mandelbaum, The Ideas That Conquered the World: Peace, Democracy, and Free Markets . New York: Public Affairs, 2002, p. 128)

It’s easier to make smooth transitions when neighboring sections deal with closely related subjects, as Mandelbaum’s do. Sometimes, however, you need to end one section with greater finality so you can switch to a different topic. The best way to do that is with a few summary comments at the end of the section. Your readers will understand you are drawing this topic to a close, and they won’t be blindsided by your shift to a new topic in the next section.

Here’s an example from economic historian Joel Mokyr’s book The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress . Mokyr is completing a section on social values in early industrial societies. The next section deals with a quite different aspect of technological progress: the role of property rights and institutions. So Mokyr needs to take the reader across a more abrupt change than Mandelbaum did. Mokyr does that in two ways. First, he summarizes his findings on social values, letting the reader know the section is ending. Then he says the impact of values is complicated, a point he illustrates in the final sentences, while the impact of property rights and institutions seems to be more straightforward. So he begins the new section with a nod to the old one, noting the contrast.

In commerce, war and politics, what was functional was often preferred [within Europe] to what was aesthetic or moral, and when it was not, natural selection saw to it that such pragmatism was never entirely absent in any society. . . . The contempt in which physical labor, commerce, and other economic activity were held did not disappear rapidly; much of European social history can be interpreted as a struggle between wealth and other values for a higher step in the hierarchy. The French concepts of bourgeois gentilhomme and nouveau riche still convey some contempt for people who joined the upper classes through economic success. Even in the nineteenth century, the accumulation of wealth was viewed as an admission ticket to social respectability to be abandoned as soon as a secure membership in the upper classes had been achieved. Institutions and Property Rights The institutional background of technological progress seems, on the surface, more straightforward. (Joel Mokyr, The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress . New York: Oxford University Press, 1990, p. 176)

Note the phrase, “on the surface.” Mokyr is hinting at his next point, that surface appearances are deceiving in this case. Good transitions between sections of your research paper depend on:

• Getting the sections in the right order
• Moving smoothly from one section to the next
• Signaling readers that they are taking the next step in your argument
• Explaining why this next step comes where it does

Every good paper ends with a strong concluding paragraph. To write a good conclusion, sum up the main points in your paper. To write an even better conclusion, include a sentence or two that helps the reader answer the question, “So what?” or “Why does all this matter?” If you choose to include one or more “So What?” sentences, remember that you still need to support any point you make with facts or examples. Remember, too, that this is not the place to introduce new ideas from “out of the blue.” Make sure that everything you write in your conclusion refers to what you’ve already written in the body of your paper.

Back to How To Write A Research Paper .

ORDER HIGH QUALITY CUSTOM PAPER

Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper

Definition and Purpose of Abstracts

An abstract is a short summary of your (published or unpublished) research paper, usually about a paragraph (c. 6-7 sentences, 150-250 words) long. A well-written abstract serves multiple purposes:

• an abstract lets readers get the gist or essence of your paper or article quickly, in order to decide whether to read the full paper;
• an abstract prepares readers to follow the detailed information, analyses, and arguments in your full paper;
• and, later, an abstract helps readers remember key points from your paper.

It’s also worth remembering that search engines and bibliographic databases use abstracts, as well as the title, to identify key terms for indexing your published paper. So what you include in your abstract and in your title are crucial for helping other researchers find your paper or article.

If you are writing an abstract for a course paper, your professor may give you specific guidelines for what to include and how to organize your abstract. Similarly, academic journals often have specific requirements for abstracts. So in addition to following the advice on this page, you should be sure to look for and follow any guidelines from the course or journal you’re writing for.

The Contents of an Abstract

Abstracts contain most of the following kinds of information in brief form. The body of your paper will, of course, develop and explain these ideas much more fully. As you will see in the samples below, the proportion of your abstract that you devote to each kind of information—and the sequence of that information—will vary, depending on the nature and genre of the paper that you are summarizing in your abstract. And in some cases, some of this information is implied, rather than stated explicitly. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , which is widely used in the social sciences, gives specific guidelines for what to include in the abstract for different kinds of papers—for empirical studies, literature reviews or meta-analyses, theoretical papers, methodological papers, and case studies.

Here are the typical kinds of information found in most abstracts:

• the context or background information for your research; the general topic under study; the specific topic of your research
• the central questions or statement of the problem your research addresses
• what’s already known about this question, what previous research has done or shown
• the main reason(s) , the exigency, the rationale , the goals for your research—Why is it important to address these questions? Are you, for example, examining a new topic? Why is that topic worth examining? Are you filling a gap in previous research? Applying new methods to take a fresh look at existing ideas or data? Resolving a dispute within the literature in your field? . . .
• your research and/or analytical methods
• your main findings , results , or arguments
• the significance or implications of your findings or arguments.

Your abstract should be intelligible on its own, without a reader’s having to read your entire paper. And in an abstract, you usually do not cite references—most of your abstract will describe what you have studied in your research and what you have found and what you argue in your paper. In the body of your paper, you will cite the specific literature that informs your research.

When to Write Your Abstract

Although you might be tempted to write your abstract first because it will appear as the very first part of your paper, it’s a good idea to wait to write your abstract until after you’ve drafted your full paper, so that you know what you’re summarizing.

What follows are some sample abstracts in published papers or articles, all written by faculty at UW-Madison who come from a variety of disciplines. We have annotated these samples to help you see the work that these authors are doing within their abstracts.

Choosing Verb Tenses within Your Abstract

The social science sample (Sample 1) below uses the present tense to describe general facts and interpretations that have been and are currently true, including the prevailing explanation for the social phenomenon under study. That abstract also uses the present tense to describe the methods, the findings, the arguments, and the implications of the findings from their new research study. The authors use the past tense to describe previous research.

The humanities sample (Sample 2) below uses the past tense to describe completed events in the past (the texts created in the pulp fiction industry in the 1970s and 80s) and uses the present tense to describe what is happening in those texts, to explain the significance or meaning of those texts, and to describe the arguments presented in the article.

The science samples (Samples 3 and 4) below use the past tense to describe what previous research studies have done and the research the authors have conducted, the methods they have followed, and what they have found. In their rationale or justification for their research (what remains to be done), they use the present tense. They also use the present tense to introduce their study (in Sample 3, “Here we report . . .”) and to explain the significance of their study (In Sample 3, This reprogramming . . . “provides a scalable cell source for. . .”).

Sample Abstract 1

From the social sciences.

Reporting new findings about the reasons for increasing economic homogamy among spouses

Gonalons-Pons, Pilar, and Christine R. Schwartz. “Trends in Economic Homogamy: Changes in Assortative Mating or the Division of Labor in Marriage?” Demography , vol. 54, no. 3, 2017, pp. 985-1005.

Sample Abstract 2

From the humanities.

Analyzing underground pulp fiction publications in Tanzania, this article makes an argument about the cultural significance of those publications

Emily Callaci. “Street Textuality: Socialism, Masculinity, and Urban Belonging in Tanzania’s Pulp Fiction Publishing Industry, 1975-1985.” Comparative Studies in Society and History , vol. 59, no. 1, 2017, pp. 183-210.

Sample Abstract/Summary 3

From the sciences.

Reporting a new method for reprogramming adult mouse fibroblasts into induced cardiac progenitor cells

Lalit, Pratik A., Max R. Salick, Daryl O. Nelson, Jayne M. Squirrell, Christina M. Shafer, Neel G. Patel, Imaan Saeed, Eric G. Schmuck, Yogananda S. Markandeya, Rachel Wong, Martin R. Lea, Kevin W. Eliceiri, Timothy A. Hacker, Wendy C. Crone, Michael Kyba, Daniel J. Garry, Ron Stewart, James A. Thomson, Karen M. Downs, Gary E. Lyons, and Timothy J. Kamp. “Lineage Reprogramming of Fibroblasts into Proliferative Induced Cardiac Progenitor Cells by Defined Factors.” Cell Stem Cell , vol. 18, 2016, pp. 354-367.

Sample Abstract 4, a Structured Abstract

Reporting results about the effectiveness of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis, from a rigorously controlled study

Note: This journal requires authors to organize their abstract into four specific sections, with strict word limits. Because the headings for this structured abstract are self-explanatory, we have chosen not to add annotations to this sample abstract.

Wald, Ellen R., David Nash, and Jens Eickhoff. “Effectiveness of Amoxicillin/Clavulanate Potassium in the Treatment of Acute Bacterial Sinusitis in Children.” Pediatrics , vol. 124, no. 1, 2009, pp. 9-15.

“OBJECTIVE: The role of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis (ABS) in children is controversial. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of high-dose amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate in the treatment of children diagnosed with ABS.

METHODS : This was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Children 1 to 10 years of age with a clinical presentation compatible with ABS were eligible for participation. Patients were stratified according to age (<6 or ≥6 years) and clinical severity and randomly assigned to receive either amoxicillin (90 mg/kg) with potassium clavulanate (6.4 mg/kg) or placebo. A symptom survey was performed on days 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 20, and 30. Patients were examined on day 14. Children’s conditions were rated as cured, improved, or failed according to scoring rules.

RESULTS: Two thousand one hundred thirty-five children with respiratory complaints were screened for enrollment; 139 (6.5%) had ABS. Fifty-eight patients were enrolled, and 56 were randomly assigned. The mean age was 6630 months. Fifty (89%) patients presented with persistent symptoms, and 6 (11%) presented with nonpersistent symptoms. In 24 (43%) children, the illness was classified as mild, whereas in the remaining 32 (57%) children it was severe. Of the 28 children who received the antibiotic, 14 (50%) were cured, 4 (14%) were improved, 4(14%) experienced treatment failure, and 6 (21%) withdrew. Of the 28children who received placebo, 4 (14%) were cured, 5 (18%) improved, and 19 (68%) experienced treatment failure. Children receiving the antibiotic were more likely to be cured (50% vs 14%) and less likely to have treatment failure (14% vs 68%) than children receiving the placebo.

CONCLUSIONS : ABS is a common complication of viral upper respiratory infections. Amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate results in significantly more cures and fewer failures than placebo, according to parental report of time to resolution.” (9)

Some Excellent Advice about Writing Abstracts for Basic Science Research Papers, by Professor Adriano Aguzzi from the Institute of Neuropathology at the University of Zurich:

Academic and Professional Writing

This is an accordion element with a series of buttons that open and close related content panels.

Analysis Papers

Reading Poetry

A Short Guide to Close Reading for Literary Analysis

Using Literary Quotations

Play Reviews

Writing a Rhetorical Précis to Analyze Nonfiction Texts

Incorporating Interview Data

Grant Proposals

Planning and Writing a Grant Proposal: The Basics

Additional Resources for Grants and Proposal Writing

Job Materials and Application Essays

Writing Personal Statements for Ph.D. Programs

• Before you begin: useful tips for writing your essay
• Guided brainstorming exercises
• Get more help with your essay
• Frequently Asked Questions

Resume Writing Tips

CV Writing Tips

Cover Letters

Business Letters

Proposals and Dissertations

Resources for Proposal Writers

Resources for Dissertators

Research Papers

Planning and Writing Research Papers

Quoting and Paraphrasing

Writing Annotated Bibliographies

Creating Poster Presentations

Thank-You Notes

Advice for Students Writing Thank-You Notes to Donors

Reading for a Review

Critical Reviews

Writing a Review of Literature

Scientific Reports

Scientific Report Format

Sample Lab Assignment

Writing for the Web

Writing an Effective Blog Post

Writing for Social Media: A Guide for Academics

Breadcrumbs Section. Click here to navigate to respective pages.

The Collaborative Body in Qualitative Research

DOI link for The Collaborative Body in Qualitative Research

Get Citation

The Collaborative Body in Qualitative Research challenges normative philosophies that have frequently neglected the body’s place in research and then illustrates how the body is essential for all meaning making.

By ‘voicing the body’, the first part of this rebellious book problematizes how the body is used/assessed, yet often silenced in academic writing. This book then fluidly moves to celebrating the body through discussing taboo topics like sex/sexuality in friendship, underwear (knickers), ageing, and death, as well as how a non-binary body moves in a heteronormative world. Through the lens of Bodyography, this book does research differently – illuminating how the body flourishes, excites knowledge, and is complicated when placed on a ‘screen’. This book celebrates a collaborative and arts-based approach. This book is a dialogue between The Bodies Collective, with dialogic resonance sections between each chapter and art pieces throughout.

This book will encourage all scholars to do research differently. Anyone with a thirst to challenge normative practices in academia and who wants research to be inspiring and playful will fall in love with this book.

N.B. Please cite the authorship of this book as 'The Bodies Collective (2023)'

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter | 19  pages, introduction, chapter 1 | 14  pages, voicing the unspeakable body, chapter | 6  pages, resonances to chapter 1: conversation with the bodies collective around power and privilege, chapter 2 | 11  pages, embodied friendship and explicit autoethnography, chapter | 5  pages, resonances to chapter 2: abject autoethnography: a conversation, chapter 3 | 12  pages, (un)dressing the body, chapter | 4  pages, resonances to chapter 3: the academic life of knickers discussion, chapter 4 | 10  pages, uncovering the non-binary body, resonances to chapter 4: the presence of absence and other refractions of gender identity, chapter 5 | 12  pages, equivalencies—creative rituals, the ageing body, and grief, chapter | 8  pages, resonances to chapter 5: the presence of absence and the twelfthtide nights through creative serious play, chapter 6 | 13  pages, snacks from cooking after the bodyography recipe, resonances to chapter 6: between academic skinship and authorship—cultivating different tastes and appetites, chapter 7 | 9  pages, talking/walking to myself, resonances to chapter 7: matter as mattering, chapter 8 | 16  pages, doing online embodied research, resonances to chapter 8: i am always in relation to you, whatever form we take together, chapter | 10  pages, an ending to the book and a beginning of sorts.

• Privacy Policy
• Terms & Conditions
• Cookie Policy
• Taylor & Francis Online
• Taylor & Francis Group
• Students/Researchers
• Librarians/Institutions

Connect with us

Registered in England & Wales No. 3099067 5 Howick Place | London | SW1P 1WG © 2024 Informa UK Limited

What is Research?

Research is a process of systematic inquiry that entails collection of data; documentation of critical information; and analysis and interpretation of that data/information, in accordance with suitable methodologies set by specific professional fields and academic disciplines.

Research is conducted to...

• Evaluate the validity of a hypothesis or an interpretive framework.
• To assemble a body of substantive knowledge and findings for sharing them in appropriate manners.
• To help generate questions for further inquiries.

If you would like further examples of specific ways different schools at Hampshire think about research, see: School Definitions of Research » What is "research" that needs to be reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board at Hampshire before proceeding?  Research should be reviewed by the IRB only when human subjects are involved, and the term research should be considered under a more narrow definition. Specifically, when the researcher is conducting research as outlined above AND has direct interaction with participants or data linked to personal identifiers , it should always fall under the purview of the IRB. Even if you have not directly collected the data yourself, as the researcher, your research may fall under the purview of the IRB. In reviewing such research, the IRB is concerned with the methodology of data collection in the "field" (e.g. collection, experimentation, interview, participant observation, etc.) and the use of the data.  The broader validity of the hypotheses or research questions, and the quality of inferences that may result (unless, of course, the research methodologies severely compromise the data collection and data usage directly), is not something they will be evaluating.

What if I am using information that is already available?

If you are doing research that is limited to secondary analysis of data, records, or specimens that are either publicly available, de-identified, or otherwise impossible to be linked to personal identities, you may still need IRB approval to do your project. Sometimes a data use agreement between the researcher and the data custodian may still be required to verify that the researcher will not have access to identifying codes.  This "de-linking" of data from personal identifiers  allows the IRB to make this determination. Regardless, you should submit an IRB proposal so the IRB can determine whether your project needs IRB review, and if so, the type of review required. For specifics of what research should be reviewed by the IRB and the category of review required, see the flow chart and examples provided .

What is Research? – Definition, Objectives & Types of Research

Introduction: Research is a systematic and structured investigation that seeks to expand knowledge, uncover new insights, and provide evidence-based understanding in various fields. It is vital in advancing human understanding, addressing complex problems, and driving innovation. Research encompasses a wide range of methodologies, including empirical studies, experiments, surveys, and theoretical analyses, conducted by researchers across academic, scientific, and professional domains. New discoveries are made through research, theories are developed and tested, and practical solutions are generated. The impact of research is far-reaching, influencing advancements in technology, healthcare, social sciences, environmental conservation, and more. It drives progress, informs policy decisions, and shapes the future by providing a solid foundation of reliable and verified knowledge. The importance of research cannot be overstated, as it drives human knowledge forward and fosters societal development and improvement. Types of Research

What is Research?

The primary objective of the research is to contribute to the existing body of knowledge by uncovering new insights, validating existing theories, or challenging prevailing assumptions. It is driven by the pursuit of truth, accuracy, and evidence-based understanding.

Research can take various forms, depending on the discipline and the nature of the inquiry. It can be empirical, involving the collection and analysis of data through experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. It can also be theoretical, involving the critical analysis of existing literature and concepts to develop new frameworks or models.

The research process is characterized by systematic and organized steps. It begins with identifying a research problem or topic of interest, followed by an extensive literature review to understand the existing knowledge and identify gaps. Research questions or hypotheses are formulated, and a research design is developed to guide data collection and analysis.

Data collection methods can vary widely, ranging from quantitative approaches such as surveys or experiments to qualitative approaches such as interviews or case studies. Researchers analyze the collected data using appropriate statistical or qualitative analysis techniques to draw meaningful conclusions.

One of the key aspects of research is its emphasis on objectivity and rigor. Researchers strive to minimize bias, ensure the reliability and validity of findings, and maintain ethical standards in their research practices.

The impact of research extends far beyond the academic realm. Research findings inform decision-making processes in various sectors, including healthcare, policy development, business strategies, environmental conservation, and social sciences. It drives technological advancements, fosters innovation, and provides the foundation for evidence-based practices.

Furthermore, research is an iterative process, with new studies building upon and refining existing knowledge. It is a collaborative endeavor, often involving interdisciplinary collaborations and the exchange of ideas among researchers worldwide.

Definitions of Research:

Research is a systematic and organized investigation conducted to expand knowledge, gain a deeper understanding, and generate new insights in a specific field. It involves rigorous and organized data collection, analysis, and interpretation to address research questions or hypotheses. The pursuit of new information drives research, the validation of existing theories, or the exploration of new perspectives. It employs various methodologies to gather and analyze data, including empirical studies, experiments, surveys, interviews, or theoretical analyses. The ultimate goal of the research is to contribute to the existing body of knowledge, advance understanding, and inform decision-making processes across academic, scientific, and professional domains.

Kasi (2009) 1 defines “Research is, therefore, a method for investigating and collecting information aimed at the discovery of new facts or interpretation of existing information, to discover or revise facts, theories, and applications.”

Research is stated by Gina Wisker 1 as “Research is about asking and beginning to answer questions, seeking knowledge and understanding of the world and its processes, and testing assumptions and beliefs.”

Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.” 2

Burns (1997) defines research as “a systematic investigation to find answers to a problem.” 2

“The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. The dictionary defines the former as a prefix meaning again, anew, or over again and the latter as a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe. Together, they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge undertaken to establish facts or principles.” (Grinnell 1993) 2

Objectives of Research:

The research objectives can vary depending on the specific field of study, the nature of the research, and the researcher’s goals. However, some common purposes of the research include:

• Answer questions: Research aims to provide answers to specific questions or hypotheses. It seeks to investigate and uncover information, data, or insights about a particular topic or issue.
• Solve problems: Research is often conducted to address real-world issues or challenges. It aims to identify innovative solutions, strategies, or approaches that can help overcome obstacles and improve existing systems or practices.
• Generate new knowledge: Research endeavors to contribute to the existing body of knowledge by uncovering new information, theories, or perspectives. It involves exploring uncharted territory or expanding upon existing knowledge in various fields of study.
• Improve understanding: Research aims to deepen our understanding of complex phenomena, processes, or concepts. It seeks to clarify misconceptions, explore underlying mechanisms, or uncover relationships between variables, leading to a more comprehensive and accurate understanding of the subject.
• Add value: Research brings value by providing practical or theoretical benefits. It can lead to technological advancements, policies or practices, enhanced decision-making processes, or the development of new products, services, or theories.

Types of Research:

C.R. Kothari, a renowned Indian researcher and author, has proposed several types of research in his book Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques . According to Kothari, research can be categorized into the following types:

• Descriptive Research: Descriptive research is a method of investigation that provides an accurate and comprehensive description of a specific phenomenon, situation, or population. It involves collecting data through various methods, such as surveys, interviews, or observations, and analyzing the data to identify patterns, characteristics, or trends. Descriptive research does not aim to establish causal relationships or manipulate variables but instead aims to answer questions about what is happening or the current state of the research subject. This type of research is valuable in generating a foundational understanding of a topic, informing decision-making processes, and providing a basis for further research in various fields of study.
• Analytical Research: Analytical research focuses on critically examining and interpreting existing data, information, or theories to gain deeper insights and understanding. It involves analyzing and evaluating data or literature to identify patterns, relationships, or underlying causes. Analytical research aims to go beyond descriptive findings and delves into the reasons and explanations behind observed phenomena. This type of research often involves rigorous statistical analysis, comparative studies, or theoretical frameworks to draw conclusions and make inferences. Analytical research is crucial in advancing knowledge, refining theories, and providing evidence-based insights that can inform decision-making and policy development in various fields of study.
• Applied Research: Applied research is a type of research that is conducted to address practical problems or improve existing practices. It focuses on directly applying knowledge and theories to real-world situations and aims to provide actionable solutions. Applied research often involves collaborating with stakeholders, such as industry professionals or policymakers, to ensure the research outcomes have practical relevance. This type of research emphasizes implementing and evaluating interventions, strategies, or technologies to solve specific issues. The results of applied research can potentially impact society, leading to advancements in technology, policy improvements, or enhanced practices in various domains, including healthcare, education, business, and engineering.
• Fundamental Research: Fundamental research, also known as basic research or pure research, is a type of inquiry that aims to expand knowledge and understanding in a particular field. It explores theoretical concepts, principles, and fundamental laws without immediate practical application. Fundamental research is driven by curiosity and the desire to explore new frontiers of knowledge. It often involves the formulation of hypotheses, experimentation, and rigorous data analysis. The fundamental research findings may not have immediate or direct practical implications. Still, they lay the groundwork for applied research and can lead to significant breakthroughs, innovations, and advancements in various scientific disciplines. Fundamental research is essential for pushing the boundaries of knowledge and fostering a deeper understanding of the world around us.
• Qualitative Research: Qualitative research is an exploratory approach to understanding individuals’ or groups’ meaning, context, and subjective experiences. It involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data, such as interviews, observations, or textual analysis, to gain deep insights into complex social phenomena. Qualitative research focuses on uncovering underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, and cultural influences that shape human behavior. It emphasizes the richness, depth, and complexity of human experiences and seeks to provide a detailed and holistic understanding of a research topic. Qualitative research methods allow for flexibility and adaptability, enabling researchers to capture nuances and explore emerging themes. This type of research is valuable in fields such as anthropology, sociology, psychology, and education, where a deep understanding of human behavior and social processes is sought.
• Quantitative Research: Quantitative research systematically gathers and analyzes numerical data to uncover patterns, trends, and relationships. It involves collecting structured data through surveys, experiments, or observations and applying statistical techniques for data analysis. Quantitative research aims to quantify variables, measure phenomena, and draw objective conclusions based on statistical evidence. This type of research focuses on obtaining precise and measurable results, often using large sample sizes to increase the generalizability of findings. Quantitative research is prevalent in social sciences, economics, psychology, and market research, where numerical data and statistical analysis provide a rigorous and quantifiable approach to understanding and explaining phenomena.

Significance of Research:

The significance of research cannot be overstated, as it serves as the cornerstone of progress and development in various fields. Whether in science, technology, social sciences, or humanities, research is vital in advancing knowledge, addressing problems, and shaping society.

One of the primary significances of research is its ability to expand our understanding and knowledge base. Through rigorous investigation, research uncovers new information, theories, and insights that contribute to the existing body of knowledge. It allows us to delve deeper into complex phenomena, explore uncharted territories, and uncover hidden connections. This expansion of knowledge forms the basis for innovation, development, and the evolution of society.

Research also serves as a powerful tool for problem-solving. It enables us to identify and address pressing issues, whether they are in healthcare, education, economics, or any other field. By systematically examining problems, collecting and analyzing relevant data, and developing evidence-based solutions, research provides the means to overcome challenges and improve existing practices. It empowers us to make informed decisions, develop effective strategies, and allocate resources wisely.

Furthermore, research plays a critical role in informing decision-making processes. Policymakers, business leaders, and organizations rely on research findings to guide their choices, shape policies, and plan for the future. Research provides reliable and credible information, allowing decision-makers to navigate complex issues more confidently and accurately. It serves as a bridge between theory and practice, translating abstract concepts into tangible outcomes that benefit society.

Innovation and improvement are other significant outcomes of research. Research drives innovation by exploring new ideas, pushing boundaries, and challenging established norms. It leads to the developing of new technologies, products, and services that improve our quality of life. Research also fosters improvements in existing practices and processes by identifying inefficiencies, gaps, and areas for enhancement. Through research, we continuously strive to find better, more efficient ways of doing things.

Research has a profound impact on society as a whole. It addresses social issues, informs public policies, and promotes positive social change. Research provides evidence-based solutions that address societal challenges, from healthcare interventions to educational reforms. It influences public opinion, shapes cultural norms, and contributes to communities’ well-being and progress.

Moreover, research plays a crucial role in validating and challenging existing knowledge. It provides empirical evidence that supports or challenges established theories and concepts. Through rigorous scrutiny and critical analysis, research ensures that knowledge constantly evolves, grows, and adapts to new information. It encourages intellectual discourse, promotes healthy skepticism, and encourages a culture of lifelong learning.

References: 

• Kasi, P. (2009). Research: What, Why and How? AuthorHouse.
• Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques . New Age International.

Related Posts

Strategic plan for enhancing library support in research and development, what is citation, what is scholarly communication, literature review, patent: an overview, thesaurus construction and its role in indexing.

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Type above and press Enter to search. Press Esc to cancel.

Educational resources and simple solutions for your research journey

What is Research? Definition, Types, Methods, and Examples

Academic research is a methodical way of exploring new ideas or understanding things we already know. It involves gathering and studying information to answer questions or test ideas and requires careful thinking and persistence to reach meaningful conclusions. Let’s try to understand what research is.   

Table of Contents

Why is research important?    

Whether it’s doing experiments, analyzing data, or studying old documents, research helps us learn more about the world. Without it, we rely on guesswork and hearsay, often leading to mistakes and misconceptions. By using systematic methods, research helps us see things clearly, free from biases. (1)   

What is the purpose of research?  

In the real world, academic research is also a key driver of innovation. It brings many benefits, such as creating valuable opportunities and fostering partnerships between academia and industry. By turning research into products and services, science makes meaningful improvements to people’s lives and boosts the economy. (2)(3)  

What are the characteristics of research?    

The research process collects accurate information systematically. Logic is used to analyze the collected data and find insights. Checking the collected data thoroughly ensures accuracy. Research also leads to new questions using existing data.   

Accuracy is key in research, which requires precise data collection and analysis. In scientific research, laboratories ensure accuracy by carefully calibrating instruments and controlling experiments. Every step is checked to maintain integrity, from instruments to final results. Accuracy gives reliable insights, which in turn help advance knowledge.   

Types of research    

The different forms of research serve distinct purposes in expanding knowledge and understanding:    

• Exploratory research ventures into uncharted territories, exploring new questions or problem areas without aiming for conclusive answers. For instance, a study may delve into unexplored market segments to better understand consumer behaviour patterns.   
• Descriptive research delves into current issues by collecting and analyzing data to describe the behaviour of a sample population. For instance, a survey may investigate millennials’ spending habits to gain insights into their purchasing behaviours.   
• Explanatory research, also known as causal research, seeks to understand the impact of specific changes in existing procedures. An example might be a study examining how changes in drug dosage over some time improve patients’ health.   
• Correlational research examines connections between two sets of data to uncover meaningful relationships. For instance, a study may analyze the relationship between advertising spending and sales revenue.   
• Theoretical research deepens existing knowledge without attempting to solve specific problems. For example, a study may explore theoretical frameworks to understand the underlying principles of human behaviour.   
• Applied research focuses on real-world issues and aims to provide practical solutions. An example could be a study investigating the effectiveness of a new teaching method in improving student performance in schools.  (4)

Types of research methods

• Qualitative Method: Qualitative research gathers non-numerical data through interactions with participants. Methods include one-to-one interviews, focus groups, ethnographic studies, text analysis, and case studies. For example, a researcher interviews cancer patients to understand how different treatments impact their lives emotionally.    
• Quantitative Method: Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable data to understand relationships between variables. They use systematic methods to investigate events and aim to explain or predict outcomes. For example, Researchers study how exercise affects heart health by measuring variables like heart rate and blood pressure in a large group before and after an exercise program. (5)  

Basic steps involved in the research process    

Here are the basic steps to help you understand the research process:   

• Choose your topic: Decide the specific subject or area that you want to study and investigate. This decision is the foundation of your research journey.   
• Find information: Look for information related to your research topic. You can search in journals, books, online, or ask experts for help.   
• Assess your sources: Make sure the information you find is reliable and trustworthy. Check the author’s credentials and the publication date.   
• Take notes: Write down important information from your sources that you can use in your research.   
• Write your paper: Use your notes to write your research paper. Broadly, start with an introduction, then write the body of your paper, and finish with a conclusion.   
• Cite your sources: Give credit to the sources you used by including citations in your paper.   
• Proofread: Check your paper thoroughly for any errors in spelling, grammar, or punctuation before you submit it. (6)

How to ensure research accuracy?  

Ensuring accuracy in research is a mix of several essential steps:    

• Clarify goals: Start by defining clear objectives for your research. Identify your research question, hypothesis, and variables of interest. This clarity will help guide your data collection and analysis methods, ensuring that your research stays focused and purposeful.   
• Use reliable data: Select trustworthy sources for your information, whether they are primary data collected by you or secondary data obtained from other sources. For example, if you’re studying climate change, use data from reputable scientific organizations with transparent methodologies.   
• Validate data: Validate your data to ensure it meets the standards of your research project. Check for errors, outliers, and inconsistencies at different stages, such as during data collection, entry, cleaning, or analysis.    
• Document processes: Documenting your data collection and analysis processes is essential for transparency and reproducibility. Record details such as data collection methods, cleaning procedures, and analysis techniques used. This documentation not only helps you keep track of your research but also enables others to understand and replicate your work.   
• Review results: Finally, review and verify your research findings to confirm their accuracy and reliability. Double-check your analyses, cross-reference your data, and seek feedback from peers or supervisors. (7) 

Research is crucial for better understanding our world and for social and economic growth. By following ethical guidelines and ensuring accuracy, researchers play a critical role in driving this progress, whether through exploring new topics or deepening existing knowledge.   

References:  

• Why is Research Important – Introductory Psychology – Washington State University  
• The Role Of Scientific Research In Driving Business Innovation – Forbes  
• Innovation – Royal Society  
• Types of Research – Definition & Methods – Bachelor Print  
• What Is Qualitative vs. Quantitative Study? – National University  
• Basic Steps in the Research Process – North Hennepin Community College  
• Best Practices for Ensuring Data Accuracy in Research – LinkedIn  

Researcher.Life is a subscription-based platform that unifies the best AI tools and services designed to speed up, simplify, and streamline every step of a researcher’s journey. The Researcher.Life All Access Pack is a one-of-a-kind subscription that unlocks full access to an AI writing assistant, literature recommender, journal finder, scientific illustration tool, and exclusive discounts on professional publication services from Editage.  

Based on 21+ years of experience in academia, Researcher.Life All Access empowers researchers to put their best research forward and move closer to success. Explore our top AI Tools pack, AI Tools + Publication Services pack, or Build Your Own Plan. Find everything a researcher needs to succeed, all in one place –  Get All Access now starting at just $17 a month !    

Related Posts

How to Structure a Dissertation? 

What is Open Science, and What is its Importance in Research? 

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

What is research writing?

The prominent socio-linguist and educator, Ken Hyland (as cited in Epting, 2018) stated that in academia, “we are what we write” (p. 561) . As new researchers preparing to join the research community we learn that writing both communicates particular content and embodies the “routines of [our] social communities” (Hyland as cited in Epting, 2018, p. 561). This means that writing for research is an act of ‘becoming’ a researcher and a crucial step in take an esteemed place in a research community.

It is important that as a n aspiring research writer , you too engage in the norms and conventions that define research in your field . Th is includes but is not limited to writing and publishing and involves any other form of communicating and disseminating your work.

As Kamler & Thomson (2006) state in a well-known book titled, Helping Doctorial Students Write: Pedagogies for Supervision:

“We see research writing as an institutionally-constrained social practice. It is about meaning making and learning to produce knowledge in particular disciplines and discourse communities” (p. 5) .

In joining your own research community and establishing yourself as a researcher within that field, you too will be following the cultural norms and behaviours that are well-established in that field.      

Research and Writing Skills for Academic and Graduate Researchers Copyright © 2022 by RMIT University is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

How to Write a Research Paper Introduction (with Examples)

Table of Contents

The research paper introduction section, along with the Title and Abstract, can be considered the face of any research paper. The following article is intended to guide you in organizing and writing the research paper introduction for a quality academic article or dissertation.

The research paper introduction aims to present the topic to the reader. A study will only be accepted for publishing if you can ascertain that the available literature cannot answer your research question. So it is important to ensure that you have read important studies on that particular topic, especially those within the last five to ten years, and that they are properly referenced in this section. 1

What should be included in the research paper introduction is decided by what you want to tell readers about the reason behind the research and how you plan to fill the knowledge gap. The best research paper introduction provides a systemic review of existing work and demonstrates additional work that needs to be done. It needs to be brief, captivating, and well-referenced; a well-drafted research paper introduction will help the researcher win half the battle.

The introduction for a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. It has several key goals:

• Present your research topic
• Capture reader interest
• Summarize existing research
• Position your own approach
• Define your specific research problem and problem statement
• Highlight the novelty and contributions of the study
• Give an overview of the paper’s structure

The research paper introduction can vary in size and structure depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or is a review paper. Some research paper introduction examples are only half a page while others are a few pages long. In many cases, the introduction will be shorter than all of the other sections of your paper; its length depends on the size of your paper as a whole.

What is the introduction for a research paper?

The introduction in a research paper is placed at the beginning to guide the reader from a broad subject area to the specific topic that your research addresses. They present the following information to the reader

• Scope: The topic covered in the research paper
• Context: Background of your topic
• Importance: Why your research matters in that particular area of research and the industry problem that can be targeted

Why is the introduction important in a research paper?

The research paper introduction conveys a lot of information and can be considered an essential roadmap for the rest of your paper. A good introduction for a research paper is important for the following reasons:

• It stimulates your reader’s interest: A good introduction section can make your readers want to read your paper by capturing their interest. It informs the reader what they are going to learn and helps determine if the topic is of interest to them.
• It helps the reader understand the research background: Without a clear introduction, your readers may feel confused and even struggle when reading your paper. A good research paper introduction will prepare them for the in-depth research to come. It provides you the opportunity to engage with the readers and demonstrate your knowledge and authority on the specific topic.
• It explains why your research paper is worth reading: Your introduction can convey a lot of information to your readers. It introduces the topic, why the topic is important, and how you plan to proceed with your research.
• It helps guide the reader through the rest of the paper: The research paper introduction gives the reader a sense of the nature of the information that will support your arguments and the general organization of the paragraphs that will follow.

What are the parts of introduction in the research?

A good research paper introduction section should comprise three main elements: 2

• What is known: This sets the stage for your research. It informs the readers of what is known on the subject.
• What is lacking: This is aimed at justifying the reason for carrying out your research. This could involve investigating a new concept or method or building upon previous research.
• What you aim to do: This part briefly states the objectives of your research and its major contributions. Your detailed hypothesis will also form a part of this section.

Check out how Peace Alemede uses Paperpal to write her research paper

Peace Alemede, Student, University of Ilorin

Paperpal has been an excellent and beneficial tool for editing my research work. With the help of Paperpal, I am now able to write and produce results at a much faster rate. For instance, I recently used Paperpal to edit a research article that is currently being considered for publication. The tool allowed me to align the language of my paragraph ideas to a more academic setting, thereby saving me both time and resources. As a result, my work was deemed accurate for use. I highly recommend this tool to anyone in need of efficient and effective research paper editing. Peace Alemede, Student, University of Ilorin, Nigeria

Start Writing for Free

How to write a research paper introduction?

The first step in writing the research paper introduction is to inform the reader what your topic is and why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong opening statement. The second step involves establishing the kinds of research that have been done and ending with limitations or gaps in the research that you intend to address.

Finally, the research paper introduction clarifies how your own research fits in and what problem it addresses. If your research involved testing hypotheses, these should be stated along with your research question. The hypothesis should be presented in the past tense since it will have been tested by the time you are writing the research paper introduction.

The following key points, with examples, can guide you when writing the research paper introduction section:

1. Introduce the research topic:

• Highlight the importance of the research field or topic
• Describe the background of the topic
• Present an overview of current research on the topic

Example: The inclusion of experiential and competency-based learning has benefitted electronics engineering education. Industry partnerships provide an excellent alternative for students wanting to engage in solving real-world challenges. Industry-academia participation has grown in recent years due to the need for skilled engineers with practical training and specialized expertise. However, from the educational perspective, many activities are needed to incorporate sustainable development goals into the university curricula and consolidate learning innovation in universities.

2. Determine a research niche:

• Reveal a gap in existing research or oppose an existing assumption
• Formulate the research question

Example: There have been plausible efforts to integrate educational activities in higher education electronics engineering programs. However, very few studies have considered using educational research methods for performance evaluation of competency-based higher engineering education, with a focus on technical and or transversal skills. To remedy the current need for evaluating competencies in STEM fields and providing sustainable development goals in engineering education, in this study, a comparison was drawn between study groups without and with industry partners.

3. Place your research within the research niche:

• State the purpose of your study
• Highlight the key characteristics of your study
• Describe important results
• Highlight the novelty of the study.
• Offer a brief overview of the structure of the paper.

Example: The study evaluates the main competency needed in the applied electronics course, which is a fundamental core subject for many electronics engineering undergraduate programs. We compared two groups, without and with an industrial partner, that offered real-world projects to solve during the semester. This comparison can help determine significant differences in both groups in terms of developing subject competency and achieving sustainable development goals.

Write a Research Paper Introduction in Minutes with Paperpal

Paperpal is a generative AI-powered academic writing assistant. It’s trained on millions of published scholarly articles and over 20 years of STM experience. Paperpal helps authors write better and faster with:

• Real-time writing suggestions
• In-depth checks for language and grammar correction
• Paraphrasing to add variety, ensure academic tone, and trim text to meet journal limits

With Paperpal, create a research paper introduction effortlessly. In this step-by-step guide, we’ll walk you through how Paperpal transforms your initial ideas into a polished and publication-ready introduction.

How to use Paperpal to write the Introduction section

Step 1: Sign up on Paperpal and click on the Copilot feature, under this choose Outlines > Research Article > Introduction

Step 2: Add your unstructured notes or initial draft, whether in English or another language, to Paperpal, which is to be used as the base for your content.

Step 3: Fill in the specifics, such as your field of study, brief description or details you want to include, which will help the AI generate the outline for your Introduction.

Step 4: Use this outline and sentence suggestions to develop your content, adding citations where needed and modifying it to align with your specific research focus.

Step 5: Turn to Paperpal’s granular language checks to refine your content, tailor it to reflect your personal writing style, and ensure it effectively conveys your message.

You can use the same process to develop each section of your article, and finally your research paper in half the time and without any of the stress.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the purpose of the introduction in research papers.

The purpose of the research paper introduction is to introduce the reader to the problem definition, justify the need for the study, and describe the main theme of the study. The aim is to gain the reader’s attention by providing them with necessary background information and establishing the main purpose and direction of the research.

How long should the research paper introduction be?

The length of the research paper introduction can vary across journals and disciplines. While there are no strict word limits for writing the research paper introduction, an ideal length would be one page, with a maximum of 400 words over 1-4 paragraphs. Generally, it is one of the shorter sections of the paper as the reader is assumed to have at least a reasonable knowledge about the topic. 2

For example, for a study evaluating the role of building design in ensuring fire safety, there is no need to discuss definitions and nature of fire in the introduction; you could start by commenting upon the existing practices for fire safety and how your study will add to the existing knowledge and practice.

What should be included in the research paper introduction?

When deciding what to include in the research paper introduction, the rest of the paper should also be considered. The aim is to introduce the reader smoothly to the topic and facilitate an easy read without much dependency on external sources. 3

Below is a list of elements you can include to prepare a research paper introduction outline and follow it when you are writing the research paper introduction.

• Topic introduction: This can include key definitions and a brief history of the topic.
• Research context and background: Offer the readers some general information and then narrow it down to specific aspects.
• Details of the research you conducted: A brief literature review can be included to support your arguments or line of thought.
• Rationale for the study: This establishes the relevance of your study and establishes its importance.
• Importance of your research: The main contributions are highlighted to help establish the novelty of your study
• Research hypothesis: Introduce your research question and propose an expected outcome. Organization of the paper: Include a short paragraph of 3-4 sentences that highlights your plan for the entire paper

Should I include citations in the introduction for a research paper?

Cite only works that are most relevant to your topic; as a general rule, you can include one to three. Note that readers want to see evidence of original thinking. So it is better to avoid using too many references as it does not leave much room for your personal standpoint to shine through.

Citations in your research paper introduction support the key points, and the number of citations depend on the subject matter and the point discussed. If the research paper introduction is too long or overflowing with citations, it is better to cite a few review articles rather than the individual articles summarized in the review.

A good point to remember when citing research papers in the introduction section is to include at least one-third of the references in the introduction.

Should I provide a literature review in the research paper introduction?

The literature review plays a significant role in the research paper introduction section. A good literature review accomplishes the following:

• Introduces the topic
• Establishes the study’s significance
• Provides an overview of the relevant literature
• Provides context for the study using literature
• Identifies knowledge gaps

However, remember to avoid making the following mistakes when writing a research paper introduction:

• Do not use studies from the literature review to aggressively support your research
• Avoid direct quoting
• Do not allow literature review to be the focus of this section. Instead, the literature review should only aid in setting a foundation for the manuscript. 

Key points to remember

Remember the following key points for writing a good research paper introduction: 4

• Avoid stuffing too much general information: Avoid including what an average reader would know and include only that information related to the problem being addressed in the research paper introduction. For example, when describing a comparative study of non-traditional methods for mechanical design optimization, information related to the traditional methods and differences between traditional and non-traditional methods would not be relevant. In this case, the introduction for the research paper should begin with the state-of-the-art non-traditional methods and methods to evaluate the efficiency of newly developed algorithms.
• Avoid packing too many references: Cite only the required works in your research paper introduction. The other works can be included in the discussion section to strengthen your findings.
• Avoid extensive criticism of previous studies: Avoid being overly critical of earlier studies while setting the rationale for your study. A better place for this would be the Discussion section, where you can highlight the advantages of your method.
• Avoid describing conclusions of the study: When writing a research paper introduction remember not to include the findings of your study. The aim is to let the readers know what question is being answered. The actual answer should only be given in the Results and Discussion section.

To summarize, the research paper introduction section should be brief yet informative. It should convince the reader the need to conduct the study and motivate him to read further. If you’re feeling stuck or unsure, choose trusted AI academic writing assistants like Paperpal to effortlessly craft your research paper introduction and other sections of your research article.

• Jawaid, S. A., & Jawaid, M. (2019). How to write introduction and discussion. Saudi Journal of Anaesthesia, 13(Suppl 1), S18.
• Dewan, P., & Gupta, P. (2016). Writing the title, abstract and introduction: Looks matter!. Indian pediatrics, 53, 235-241.
• Cetin, S., & Hackam, D. J. (2005). An approach to the writing of a scientific Manuscript1. Journal of Surgical Research, 128(2), 165-167.
• Bavdekar, S. B. (2015). Writing introduction: Laying the foundations of a research paper. Journal of the Association of Physicians of India, 63(7), 44-6.

Paperpal is a comprehensive AI writing toolkit that helps students and researchers achieve 2x the writing in half the time. It leverages 21+ years of STM experience and insights from millions of research articles to provide in-depth academic writing, language editing, and submission readiness support to help you write better, faster.  

Get accurate academic translations, rewriting support, grammar checks, vocabulary suggestions, and generative AI assistance that delivers human precision at machine speed. Try for free or upgrade to Paperpal Prime starting at US$19 a month to access premium features, including consistency, plagiarism, and 30+ submission readiness checks to help you succeed.  

Experience the future of academic writing – Sign up to Paperpal and start writing for free!  

Related Reads:

• 5 Reasons for Rejection After Peer Review
• Ethical Research Practices For Research with Human Subjects
• 8 Most Effective Ways to Increase Motivation for Thesis Writing 
• 6 Tips for Post-Doc Researchers to Take Their Career to the Next Level

Practice vs. Practise: Learn the Difference

Academic paraphrasing: why paperpal’s rewrite should be your first choice , you may also like, how to cite in apa format (7th edition):..., how to write your research paper in apa..., how to choose a dissertation topic, how to write a phd research proposal, how to write an academic paragraph (step-by-step guide), research funding basics: what should a grant proposal..., how to write an abstract in research papers..., how to write dissertation acknowledgements, how to write the first draft of a..., mla works cited page: format, template & examples.

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• Systematic Review | Definition, Example, & Guide

Systematic Review | Definition, Example & Guide

Published on June 15, 2022 by Shaun Turney . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A systematic review is a type of review that uses repeatable methods to find, select, and synthesize all available evidence. It answers a clearly formulated research question and explicitly states the methods used to arrive at the answer.

They answered the question “What is the effectiveness of probiotics in reducing eczema symptoms and improving quality of life in patients with eczema?”

In this context, a probiotic is a health product that contains live microorganisms and is taken by mouth. Eczema is a common skin condition that causes red, itchy skin.

Table of contents

What is a systematic review, systematic review vs. meta-analysis, systematic review vs. literature review, systematic review vs. scoping review, when to conduct a systematic review, pros and cons of systematic reviews, step-by-step example of a systematic review, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about systematic reviews.

A review is an overview of the research that’s already been completed on a topic.

What makes a systematic review different from other types of reviews is that the research methods are designed to reduce bias . The methods are repeatable, and the approach is formal and systematic:

• Formulate a research question
• Develop a protocol
• Search for all relevant studies
• Apply the selection criteria
• Extract the data
• Synthesize the data
• Write and publish a report

Although multiple sets of guidelines exist, the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews is among the most widely used. It provides detailed guidelines on how to complete each step of the systematic review process.

Systematic reviews are most commonly used in medical and public health research, but they can also be found in other disciplines.

Systematic reviews typically answer their research question by synthesizing all available evidence and evaluating the quality of the evidence. Synthesizing means bringing together different information to tell a single, cohesive story. The synthesis can be narrative ( qualitative ), quantitative , or both.

Here's why students love Scribbr's proofreading services

Discover proofreading & editing

Systematic reviews often quantitatively synthesize the evidence using a meta-analysis . A meta-analysis is a statistical analysis, not a type of review.

A meta-analysis is a technique to synthesize results from multiple studies. It’s a statistical analysis that combines the results of two or more studies, usually to estimate an effect size .

A literature review is a type of review that uses a less systematic and formal approach than a systematic review. Typically, an expert in a topic will qualitatively summarize and evaluate previous work, without using a formal, explicit method.

Although literature reviews are often less time-consuming and can be insightful or helpful, they have a higher risk of bias and are less transparent than systematic reviews.

Similar to a systematic review, a scoping review is a type of review that tries to minimize bias by using transparent and repeatable methods.

However, a scoping review isn’t a type of systematic review. The most important difference is the goal: rather than answering a specific question, a scoping review explores a topic. The researcher tries to identify the main concepts, theories, and evidence, as well as gaps in the current research.

Sometimes scoping reviews are an exploratory preparation step for a systematic review, and sometimes they are a standalone project.

A systematic review is a good choice of review if you want to answer a question about the effectiveness of an intervention , such as a medical treatment.

To conduct a systematic review, you’ll need the following:

• A precise question , usually about the effectiveness of an intervention. The question needs to be about a topic that’s previously been studied by multiple researchers. If there’s no previous research, there’s nothing to review.
• If you’re doing a systematic review on your own (e.g., for a research paper or thesis ), you should take appropriate measures to ensure the validity and reliability of your research.
• Access to databases and journal archives. Often, your educational institution provides you with access.
• Time. A professional systematic review is a time-consuming process: it will take the lead author about six months of full-time work. If you’re a student, you should narrow the scope of your systematic review and stick to a tight schedule.
• Bibliographic, word-processing, spreadsheet, and statistical software . For example, you could use EndNote, Microsoft Word, Excel, and SPSS.

A systematic review has many pros .

• They minimize research bias by considering all available evidence and evaluating each study for bias.
• Their methods are transparent , so they can be scrutinized by others.
• They’re thorough : they summarize all available evidence.
• They can be replicated and updated by others.

Systematic reviews also have a few cons .

• They’re time-consuming .
• They’re narrow in scope : they only answer the precise research question.

The 7 steps for conducting a systematic review are explained with an example.

Step 1: Formulate a research question

Formulating the research question is probably the most important step of a systematic review. A clear research question will:

• Allow you to more effectively communicate your research to other researchers and practitioners
• Guide your decisions as you plan and conduct your systematic review

A good research question for a systematic review has four components, which you can remember with the acronym PICO :

• Population(s) or problem(s)
• Intervention(s)
• Comparison(s)

You can rearrange these four components to write your research question:

• What is the effectiveness of I versus C for O in P ?

Sometimes, you may want to include a fifth component, the type of study design . In this case, the acronym is PICOT .

• Type of study design(s)
• The population of patients with eczema
• The intervention of probiotics
• In comparison to no treatment, placebo , or non-probiotic treatment
• The outcome of changes in participant-, parent-, and doctor-rated symptoms of eczema and quality of life
• Randomized control trials, a type of study design

Their research question was:

• What is the effectiveness of probiotics versus no treatment, a placebo, or a non-probiotic treatment for reducing eczema symptoms and improving quality of life in patients with eczema?

Step 2: Develop a protocol

A protocol is a document that contains your research plan for the systematic review. This is an important step because having a plan allows you to work more efficiently and reduces bias.

Your protocol should include the following components:

• Background information : Provide the context of the research question, including why it’s important.
• Research objective (s) : Rephrase your research question as an objective.
• Selection criteria: State how you’ll decide which studies to include or exclude from your review.
• Search strategy: Discuss your plan for finding studies.
• Analysis: Explain what information you’ll collect from the studies and how you’ll synthesize the data.

If you’re a professional seeking to publish your review, it’s a good idea to bring together an advisory committee . This is a group of about six people who have experience in the topic you’re researching. They can help you make decisions about your protocol.

It’s highly recommended to register your protocol. Registering your protocol means submitting it to a database such as PROSPERO or ClinicalTrials.gov .

Step 3: Search for all relevant studies

Searching for relevant studies is the most time-consuming step of a systematic review.

To reduce bias, it’s important to search for relevant studies very thoroughly. Your strategy will depend on your field and your research question, but sources generally fall into these four categories:

• Databases: Search multiple databases of peer-reviewed literature, such as PubMed or Scopus . Think carefully about how to phrase your search terms and include multiple synonyms of each word. Use Boolean operators if relevant.
• Handsearching: In addition to searching the primary sources using databases, you’ll also need to search manually. One strategy is to scan relevant journals or conference proceedings. Another strategy is to scan the reference lists of relevant studies.
• Gray literature: Gray literature includes documents produced by governments, universities, and other institutions that aren’t published by traditional publishers. Graduate student theses are an important type of gray literature, which you can search using the Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (NDLTD) . In medicine, clinical trial registries are another important type of gray literature.
• Experts: Contact experts in the field to ask if they have unpublished studies that should be included in your review.

At this stage of your review, you won’t read the articles yet. Simply save any potentially relevant citations using bibliographic software, such as Scribbr’s APA or MLA Generator .

• Databases: EMBASE, PsycINFO, AMED, LILACS, and ISI Web of Science
• Handsearch: Conference proceedings and reference lists of articles
• Gray literature: The Cochrane Library, the metaRegister of Controlled Trials, and the Ongoing Skin Trials Register
• Experts: Authors of unpublished registered trials, pharmaceutical companies, and manufacturers of probiotics

Step 4: Apply the selection criteria

Applying the selection criteria is a three-person job. Two of you will independently read the studies and decide which to include in your review based on the selection criteria you established in your protocol . The third person’s job is to break any ties.

To increase inter-rater reliability , ensure that everyone thoroughly understands the selection criteria before you begin.

If you’re writing a systematic review as a student for an assignment, you might not have a team. In this case, you’ll have to apply the selection criteria on your own; you can mention this as a limitation in your paper’s discussion.

You should apply the selection criteria in two phases:

• Based on the titles and abstracts : Decide whether each article potentially meets the selection criteria based on the information provided in the abstracts.
• Based on the full texts: Download the articles that weren’t excluded during the first phase. If an article isn’t available online or through your library, you may need to contact the authors to ask for a copy. Read the articles and decide which articles meet the selection criteria.

It’s very important to keep a meticulous record of why you included or excluded each article. When the selection process is complete, you can summarize what you did using a PRISMA flow diagram .

Next, Boyle and colleagues found the full texts for each of the remaining studies. Boyle and Tang read through the articles to decide if any more studies needed to be excluded based on the selection criteria.

When Boyle and Tang disagreed about whether a study should be excluded, they discussed it with Varigos until the three researchers came to an agreement.

Step 5: Extract the data

Extracting the data means collecting information from the selected studies in a systematic way. There are two types of information you need to collect from each study:

• Information about the study’s methods and results . The exact information will depend on your research question, but it might include the year, study design , sample size, context, research findings , and conclusions. If any data are missing, you’ll need to contact the study’s authors.
• Your judgment of the quality of the evidence, including risk of bias .

You should collect this information using forms. You can find sample forms in The Registry of Methods and Tools for Evidence-Informed Decision Making and the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations Working Group .

Extracting the data is also a three-person job. Two people should do this step independently, and the third person will resolve any disagreements.

They also collected data about possible sources of bias, such as how the study participants were randomized into the control and treatment groups.

Step 6: Synthesize the data

Synthesizing the data means bringing together the information you collected into a single, cohesive story. There are two main approaches to synthesizing the data:

• Narrative ( qualitative ): Summarize the information in words. You’ll need to discuss the studies and assess their overall quality.
• Quantitative : Use statistical methods to summarize and compare data from different studies. The most common quantitative approach is a meta-analysis , which allows you to combine results from multiple studies into a summary result.

Generally, you should use both approaches together whenever possible. If you don’t have enough data, or the data from different studies aren’t comparable, then you can take just a narrative approach. However, you should justify why a quantitative approach wasn’t possible.

Boyle and colleagues also divided the studies into subgroups, such as studies about babies, children, and adults, and analyzed the effect sizes within each group.

Step 7: Write and publish a report

The purpose of writing a systematic review article is to share the answer to your research question and explain how you arrived at this answer.

Your article should include the following sections:

• Abstract : A summary of the review
• Introduction : Including the rationale and objectives
• Methods : Including the selection criteria, search method, data extraction method, and synthesis method
• Results : Including results of the search and selection process, study characteristics, risk of bias in the studies, and synthesis results
• Discussion : Including interpretation of the results and limitations of the review
• Conclusion : The answer to your research question and implications for practice, policy, or research

To verify that your report includes everything it needs, you can use the PRISMA checklist .

Once your report is written, you can publish it in a systematic review database, such as the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews , and/or in a peer-reviewed journal.

In their report, Boyle and colleagues concluded that probiotics cannot be recommended for reducing eczema symptoms or improving quality of life in patients with eczema. Note Generative AI tools like ChatGPT can be useful at various stages of the writing and research process and can help you to write your systematic review. However, we strongly advise against trying to pass AI-generated text off as your own work.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Student’s  t -distribution
• Normal distribution
• Null and Alternative Hypotheses
• Chi square tests
• Confidence interval
• Quartiles & Quantiles
• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Data cleansing
• Reproducibility vs Replicability
• Peer review
• Prospective cohort study

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Placebo effect
• Hawthorne effect
• Hindsight bias
• Affect heuristic
• Social desirability bias

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

A literature review is a survey of credible sources on a topic, often used in dissertations , theses, and research papers . Literature reviews give an overview of knowledge on a subject, helping you identify relevant theories and methods, as well as gaps in existing research. Literature reviews are set up similarly to other  academic texts , with an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion .

An  annotated bibliography is a list of  source references that has a short description (called an annotation ) for each of the sources. It is often assigned as part of the research process for a  paper .  

A systematic review is secondary research because it uses existing research. You don’t collect new data yourself.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Turney, S. (2023, November 20). Systematic Review | Definition, Example & Guide. Scribbr. Retrieved October 16, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/systematic-review/

Is this article helpful?

Shaun Turney

Other students also liked, how to write a literature review | guide, examples, & templates, how to write a research proposal | examples & templates, what is critical thinking | definition & examples, "i thought ai proofreading was useless but..".

I've been using Scribbr for years now and I know it's a service that won't disappoint. It does a good job spotting mistakes”

An official website of the United States government

Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.

Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( Lock Locked padlock icon ) or https:// means you've safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites.

• Publications
• Account settings
• Advanced Search
• Journal List

Evidence of Health Risks Associated with Prolonged Standing at Work and Intervention Effectiveness

Thomas r waters , ph.d., robert b dick , ph.d..

• Author information
• Article notes
• Copyright and License information

Correspondence: Robert B. Dick, Ph.D., Guest Researcher, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 4676 Columbia Parkway, MS-C24, Cincinnati, Ohio 45226-1998. [email protected]

Issue date 2015 May-Jun.

Prolonged standing at work has been shown to be associated with a number of potentially serious health outcomes, such as lower back and leg pain, cardiovascular problems, fatigue, discomfort, and pregnancy related health outcomes. Recent studies have been conducted examining the relationship between these health outcomes and the amount of time spent standing while on the job. The purpose of this article was to provide a review of the health risks and interventions for workers and employers that are involved in occupations requiring prolonged standing. A brief review of recommendations by governmental and professional organizations for hours of prolonged standing is also included.

Based on our review of the literature, there seems to be ample evidence showing that prolonged standing at work leads to adverse health outcomes. Review of the literature also supports the conclusion that certain interventions are effective in reducing the hazards associated with prolonged standing. Suggested interventions include the use of floor mats, sit-stand workstations/chairs, shoes, shoe inserts and hosiery or stockings. Studies could be improved by using more precise definitions of prolonged standing (e.g., duration, movement restrictions, and type of work), better measurement of the health outcomes and more rigorous study protocols.

Conclusion and Clinical Relevance

Use of interventions and following suggested guidelines on hours of standing from governmental and professional organizations should reduce the health risks from prolonged standing.

Keywords: Prolonged standing; low back pain; leg pain; cardiovascular problems; subjective measures; biomechanical/physiological measures; interventions (floor mats, shoe inserts, sit-stand chairs/workstations); guidelines

I. BACKGROUND

Many workers are required to stand for long periods of time without being able to walk or sit during the work shift. In operating rooms, for example, nurses and doctors must stand for many hours during surgical procedures. Similarly, direct care nurses, hairdressers, and store clerks spend large fractions of their working time standing without the ability to sit down. Briefly, a short summary below outlines the scope of the prolonged standing situation in working populations.

McCulloch (2002) summarized findings from 17 studies that involved standing for more than 8 hours per day (8 h/d). Major health risks identified were chronic venous insufficiency, musculoskeletal pain of the lower back and feet, preterm birth, and spontaneous abortions. Best et al., (2002) reported on the findings from a self-reported questionnaire administered to 204 hairdressers. Back pain was the most reported musculoskeletal disorder followed by neck and shoulder discomfort. Duration of standing was reported to be between 82% and 99% of total work time. Tissot et al., (2005) reported that the standing at work prevalence rate is 58% in the Quebec working population and more common in men, workers >25 years of age, and lower income workers. Meijsen and Hanneke (2007) reported that the average standing time for Dutch perioperative personnel [equivalent to nurses in the US] was 2.5 hours per day, and that 18% of respondents exceeded 4 hours of standing per day and 47% were in the Amber zone, and 17% were classified into the Red zone. According to Dutch ergonomic guidelines for prolonged standing, exposure is classified into one of three zones -- Green (safe-continuous standing ≤ 1h and total/day ≤ 4h), Amber (action recommended-continuous standing >1h or total/day > 4h), or Red (direct action required-continuous standing >1h and total/day > 4h). Werner et al., (2010) in a cross-sectional evaluation of workers at an engine manufacturing plant in jobs that necessitated prolonged standing and walking reported that 24% met the case definition for foot/ankle disorder and that 52% had the symptoms. Sitting, standing and type of work surface did not change the prevalence.

To emphasize the importance of this topic and concern regarding worker safety, the Association for perioperative Registered Nurses (AORN) recently published guidelines and solutions for reducing health risks associated with prolonged standing in perioperative environments ( Hughes et al., 2011 ). In the guideline adopted by AORN, it is recommended that caregivers should not stand more than 2 hours continuously or for more than 30% of the work day without some type of fatigue-reducing interventions, such as anti-fatigue mats, specially designed footstools, sit-stand stools or chairs, or supportive footwear. The AORN guideline also suggests that if the caregiver must wear a lead apron during prolonged standing, that exposure should be limited to 1 hour without some type of intervention.

Additionally, the Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS) (2014) has reported that working in a standing posture on a regular basis can cause sore feet, swelling of the legs, varicose veins, general muscular fatigue, and low back pain, stiffness in the neck and shoulders, and other health problems. According to the CCOHS report, prolonged standing effectively reduces the blood supply to the muscles resulting in the acceleration of the onset of fatigue and causes pain in the muscles of the legs, back and neck, as well as pooling of blood in the legs and feet which leads to varicose veins. The CCOHS suggests that job design can reduce the ill effects of working in a standing position by changing working positions frequently, avoiding extreme bending, stretching, and twisting, pace work appropriately, and allow workers suitable rest periods. The CCOHS report also suggests use of floor mats, shoe inserts, compression hosiery, and ergonomic seating to avoid exposure as well.

The International Labor Organization (ILO) (2011) has also published guidelines for prevention of health effects associated with exposure to prolonged standing at work. According to the ILO, if a job must be done in a standing position, a chair or stool should be provided for the worker and he or she should be able to sit down at regular intervals. The ILO also suggests use of floor mats and good shoes to avoid standing on a hard surface, as well as the availability of footrests to help reduce the strain on the back and to allow the worker to change positions by shifting weight from time to time. Finally, the ILO suggests that the height of the work surface should be adjustable or that the worker should be able to adjust their height relative to the work surface, so that the arms do not have to be held in awkward and extreme positions.

Reid et al., (2010) in a review of several published studies on occupational body postures and the lower extremity body region affected developed a lower extremity discomfort guideline for standing based on published research. Standing >2h/incident affected the hip and >3/h affected the overall lower extremity. Halim and Omar (2012) developed a Prolonged Standing Strain Index (PSSI) in order to attempt to quantify the risk levels with standing jobs and other workplace factors (e.g., posture, injuries, vibration, air quality) with minimum risk levels proposed. The PSSI provides an overall numerical score that can be used to assign risk for a specific job into a “Safe,” “Slightly unsafe,” or “Unsafe” category.

The purpose of this paper is to review existing scientific literature examining the potential health consequences resulting from exposure to prolonged standing at work and to document the effectiveness of various interventions aimed at reducing potential health risks. The review encompasses studies examining a variety of health consequences including musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs), such as low back and lower limb discomfort and pain, local and whole body fatigue, cardiovascular disorders (CVD), cardiovascular insufficiency (CVI), and pregnancy outcomes. The review also examines the effectiveness of interventions to reduce risk of these health outcomes, such as various floor surfaces and use of floor mats, shoe and shoe inserts, use of support or compression hosiery (e.g. stockings), and sit-stand chairs/workstations. The following inclusion/exclusion criteria were used for assessing studies for this review: (1) Review articles and single studies must be available in English and were published in the peer reviewed literature since 1990; (2) Single studies had a clearly identifiable study population and purpose with study designs using independent/dependent variable paradigms; (3) Outcome measurements that focused primarily on prolonged standing and either one of the health issues listed above; and, (4) Intervention studies that evaluated methodology aimed at reducing risk due to prolonged standing. Listed below are short narratives for each study. At the end of each section is a Table that describes the study population and summarizes the major results from each study. Use of volunteers usually indicates laboratory studies. Abbreviations used in text an tables are defined initially.

II. Evidence of Negative Health Outcomes

Low back pain.

A number of low back pain (LBP) measures have been associated with prolonged standing. By far the most measured outcome is low back fatigue and discomfort. In a study of bank tellers, Roelofs et al., (2002) reported low back discomfort with prolonged standing and Drury et al., (2008) reported that those who stand for long periods during the day reported significantly greater body parts discomfort compared to those who sit most of the day.

A number of studies have been conducted examining potential biomechanical indicators of risk of LBP due to prolonged standing. Researchers have suggested that risk of LBP is increased due to excessive co-activation of muscles involved in postural stability during prolonged standing ( Nelson-Wong et al., 2008 ; Marshall et al., 2011 ). Specifically, Nelson-Wong et al., (2008) postulated that prolonged standing results in a significant increase in co-activity of the gluteus medius (GM) muscles, a muscle group that serves to stabilize the pelvis during standing by abducting, medially rotating, and laterally rotating the thigh at the hip.

To investigate whether there is evidence of increased GM activity during prolonged standing some studies have been conducted ( Nelson-Wong et al., 2008 and Marshall et al., 2011 ). Using electromyography (EMG) recordings, the researchers found that subjects who reported low back pain showed higher co-activation of the left and right GM muscles versus those who did not report LBP during the standing task. Marshall et al., (2011) used EMG to study the endurance and strength of the GM muscles, as well as the co-activation patterns in subjects free of back pain. Their results indicated that endurance and co-activation were affected by prolonged standing and that this influenced reports of LBP.

Additional evidence of increased symptoms of LBP due to prolonged standing has been shown in studies by Nelson-Wong et al., (2010a , c ) who examined subjects’ acute biomechanical responses during a set of functional movements following prolonged standing tasks (right single leg stance, forward flexion while standing, unloaded squats and sloped surfaces). The researchers reported that following prolonged standing tasks, 1) 40% of participants developed LBP, (2) there was a decrease in vertebral joint rotation stiffness in lateral bending, (3) there was an increased excursion postural stability Center of Pressure (COP) measurements during unilateral stance, (4) there was no effect of standing on forward flexion, and (5) males had greater COP excursion than females on the single leg-standing task. In a similar study that examined the impact of sloped surfaces and its effect on biomechanical responses to prolonged standing ( Nelson-Wong et al., 2010b ) found that, for those who developed LBP, standing on sloped surface reduced pain subjective reports. This finding suggests that standing on a sloped surface in some way modifies the way the GM muscles are recruited during prolonged standing to maintain pelvic stability and decreased subjective LBP reports during prolonged standing.

The remaining studies focused on the epidemiological associations between prolonged standing and reported LBP ( Engles et al., 1996 ; Yip, 2004 ; Andersen et al., 2007 ; Tissot et al., 2009 ). Some of the studies showed a moderate positive relationship between exposure to prolonged standing and development of LBP, while some concluded that there was little or no relationship. Engles et al., 1996 , found that workers who reported being “hampered by standing” at work had increased risks of LBP and leg pain. Lack of definition of the term “hampered by standing,” makes it difficult to determine if their exposure variable was equivalent to the term “prolonged standing” at work. Yip (2004) did not show a significant relationship between prolonged standing and risk of LBP at work. The study, however, had some weaknesses. The hours of prolonged standing for the comparison may have been insufficient to cause a detectable difference in health outcomes and the level of severity of the LBP outcome measure in the study was very low. In a 24 month prospective study of LBP and other MSD outcomes Andersen et al., (2007) reported that prolonged standing increased reports of LBP and leg pain. In a cross-sectional study examining the relationship between LBP and prolonged standing and sitting, Tissot et al., (2009) reported increased reports of LBP in individuals who reported being constrained during standing. Constrained sitting, however, was not a significant risk factor for LBP in the study.

In a systematic review of scientific citations focusing on the potential causality of LBP resulting from exposure to prolonged standing, Roffey et al., (2010) concluded that they were not able to find any high quality studies that met more than two Bradford-Hill causation criteria. The inclusion criteria for causation in the review were very restrictive and many of the studies that did show a relationship between prolonged standing and development of low back pain were excluded from their review.

We reviewed 11 studies in this section which are presented in Table 1 with the study populations and significant findings. Most studies do report symptoms of Low back pain with prolonged standing.

Studies Examining Prolonged Standing and LBP.

B. Cardiovascular Problems

A number of studies have investigated the effects of prolonged standing on cardiovascular health outcomes. The measures studied have included carotid arteriosclerosis, leg edema, orthostatic symptoms (light headedness or dizziness), heart rate, blood pressure, and venous diseases (varicose veins, chronic venous disease and chronic venous insufficiency).

Tomei et al., 1999 , investigated the relationship between major venous pathologies in the legs and prolonged standing. Clinical tests indicated that prolonged standing and age were related to increased risk of venous pathologies. In a cross-sectional study examining the relationship between prolonged standing and risk of chronic venous insufficiency (CVI), Krijen et al., (1997b) found that 18% were diagnosed with minor CVI and that 11% were diagnosed with major CVI symptoms. In a second paper focusing on the same workers, Krijen et al., (1997c) showed increases in leg volume with prolonged standing. Excess risk of varicose vein occurrence was reported in Danish workers working mostly in a standing position that were followed for three years after first hospitalization ( Tüchsen et al., 2000 ).

In a review of studies examining the health risks associated with prolonged standing for over 8 hours, McCulloch (2002) found significant occurrence of CVI. CVI can lead to more serious health complications. McCulloch recommended employers undertake preventive measures, such as modifying job tasks to reduce risk of cardiovascular health effects due to prolonged standing.

Krause et al., (2000) examined the effect of prolonged standing on workers who were actively working over a 4 year period. Carotid intima media thickness (IMT) over a four year period was significantly greater for men who stand at work “very much,” compared to those who do not stand at work. Partsch et al., (2004) examined the effects of standing on leg edema before and after standing at work. Venous edema increased in the evening and was more pronounced in individuals with evidence of varicose veins.

Ngomo et al., (2008) measured the effect of prolonged standing on self-reported orthostatic symptoms, heart rate, and blood pressure in workers who stand for significant periods of time during their workday (i.e., average of 84–95% of the workday) and reported blood pressure changes. Sudol-Szopinska et al., (2007) conducted a prospective study examining differences in risk of chronic venous disorders (CVD) for workers who are exposed to prolonged standing compared with workers who primarily are exposed to prolonged sitting in the workplace. Prolonged standing did increase CVD symptoms. In a follow-up study with similar methodology but different workers, the findings were much the same ( Sudol-Szopinska et al., 2011 ). It should be noted that the term CVD in this study might be equivalent to the term CVI in other studies. Kraemer et al., (2000) reported on cardiovascular measures from volunteers in a complex standing fatigue protocol while performing various work tasks. Results showed that after 8 hours of standing, there were significant increases in most of the physiological measures and discomfort ratings. Bahk et al., (2012) in a questionnaire survey of several companies reported significantly elevated risks of varicose veins and nocturnal leg cramps in workers standing > 4h/d.

There seems to be agreement among the studies that prolonged standing plays a significant and potentially dangerous role in development of vascular problems for workers who must stand for long periods during the workday. Whether these exposures lead to long-term chronic leg problems is not clear, but acute health effects clearly should be prevented to the extent feasible. We identified 11 studies focusing on the effects of prolonged standing on CV problems which are listed in Table 2 .

Studies Examining Prolonged Standing and Cardiovascular Problems.

C. Fatigue/Discomfort

A number of studies have shown that exposure to prolonged standing tasks can increase the physical fatigue and discomfort reported by workers ( Jorgensen et al., 1993 ; Flore et al., 2004 ; Drury et al., 2008 ; and Balasuabramanian et al., 2009 ) in several body regions. Physical fatigue is generally assessed by various physiological/biomechanical measures such as muscle electromyography, postural stability using force platforms, or muscle surface temperatures. Discomfort is typically measured using subjective rating scales that ask individuals to rate their level of pain or fatigue using a body location diagram. Findings from studies that have examined the relationship between prolonged standing and fatigue are summarized below.

Jorgensen et al., (1993) investigated the physiological/biomechanical effects and perceived discomfort/fatigue with different shoes and floor surfaces during prolonged standing. The physiological/biomechanical measures were not affected by exposure time or floor/shoe condition but the subjective ratings were. Unfortunately, with the duration of standing limited to only 2 h, the effects on the biomechanical/physiological measures may not have occurred. Flore et al., (2004) evaluated the changes in venous pressure (before work compared to after work) on standing workers compared to the controls. Standing workers had significantly higher measures of oxidative stress before work, after work, and also the pre-post difference was higher compared to the control group. Drury et al., (2008) examined the effect of work postures on subjective fatigue in baggage security screening workers. Work posture did have an effect on ratings of body part discomfort. Balasuabramanian et al., (2009) measured muscle fatigue and perceived discomfort in workers using static and dynamic standing (move between work stations) work tasks. Fatigue rate and discomfort reports were higher in the stationary static standing posture as compared to the dynamic standing posture. Freitas and colleagues (2005) reported increases on measures of postural stability from adults and elderly individuals after 30 minutes of prolonged standing. Increased sway can indicate less postural control, an indicator of physical fatigue.

There appears to be general agreement among the study findings that prolonged standing without dynamic movement, even for periods as short as 30 minutes, leads to physical fatigue, discomfort, and pain in several body regions. It is also apparent that age affects how individuals respond to prolonged standing. The studies addressing the effects of prolonged standing on fatigue/discomfort are reported below in Table 3 .

Studies Examining Prolonged Standing and Fatigue/Discomfort

D. Pregnancy Issues

Several studies have evaluated pregnancy-related health issues associated with prolonged standing during work. Most of the studies below investigated the effects of the combination of prolonged standing and pregnancy on birth related health outcomes, such as stillbirths, spontaneous abortions, birth weights, and preterm deliveries. One study investigated ergonomic issues related to pregnancy and prolonged standing.

Two Canadian studies evaluated several occupational factors and pregnancy outcomes from working women ( McDonald, et al., 1988a , b ). Increased risk ratios were associated with prolonged standing for several health outcomes, but there was no elevated risk of pre-term delivery or low birth weights. Prolonged standing was defined as standing > 8/d. Teitelman et al., (1990) examined the impact of maternal work activity, including prolonged standing, on pre-term births and low birth weight. Prolonged standing on the job was significantly associated only with increased pre-term births. Klebanoff et al., (1990) evaluated the effect of physical activity during pregnancy on preterm delivery and birth weight. Only standing ≥ 8 hours showed a moderate increase in pre-term delivery rates. Eskenazi et al., (1994) studied the association of standing at work in women whose pregnancies ended in spontaneous abortion and women who delivered live births. Similar to the McDonald et al., results, women standing > 8 h/d at work showed risks of adverse birth outcomes. A study of Danish women between 1989 and 1991 showed significant effects on pre-term delivery rates and birth weight with hours of standing ( Henriksen et al., 1995a , b ). Mozurkewich et al., (2000) examined the effects of several working conditions on adverse pregnancy outcomes. Prolonged standing was associated with slight increased risk of pre-term birth. The authors estimated that if women discontinued prolonged standing one pre-term birth could be eliminated for every 27–80 women. Ha et al., (2002) reported results of a study of infant birth weight and standing at work. While prolonged standing showed a significant association with reduced birth weight it was not clear whether standing ≥3 hours per day was compared with no standing. Recently, Palmer et al., (2013) reported an updated review with a meta-analysis of work activities and birth outcomes. Newer studies have shown absence of large effects, but there were still small increased risks for pre-term delivery, low birth weight and small birth size for gestational age (SGA) with prolonged standing.

Pompeii et al., (2005) did not find a significant relationship between physical exertion at work and risk of pre-term birth or SGA, but exposure to prolonged standing was not assessed as h/d, but as h/wk. This resulted in the variable for prolonged standing being different from several other studies, which used h/d. In some of those studies standing > 8h/d showed a significant association with adverse pregnancy outcomes. The difference in measuring the exposure variable may be an important factor when studies report conflicting results.

Paul and Frings-Dresen (1994) investigated some of the changes that occur in working postures due to pregnancy. Results showed that the pregnant subjects would stand further from the table, with hips positioned more backwards with increased trunk flexion and with arms more extended. Postural differences in pregnant subjects were the smallest at the self-selected table height. An adjustable workplace was recommended by the authors to minimize postural changes due to pregnancy.

Most of the studies ( Table 4 ) that investigated the effects of the combination of prolonged standing and pregnancy did indicate that prolonged standing increased the incidences of stillbirths, spontaneous abortions and pre-term deliveries. Low birth weight, however, was not consistently affected by prolonged standing and the recent meta-analysis by Palmer et al., (2013) indicates a low risk. Generally, most studies involved > 3 hours of prolonged standing, but exposure duration did vary between studies.

Studies Examining Prolonged Standing and Pregnancy Issues

III. Effectiveness of Interventions

A. compression stockings.

Several studies have investigated the wearing of support stockings or hosiery during standing at work using several subjective and biomechanical/physiological measures. Krijnen et al., (1997a) examined the effects of wearing compression stockings and floor mats on workers who had been diagnosed with Chronic Venous Insufficiency (CVI) and jobs which required prolonged standing. Only the compression stockings showed intervention effectiveness (reduced leg swelling). Kraemer et al., (2000) evaluated the effects of commercial hosiery rated light to moderate compression on reducing lower body edema and discomfort. All commercial hosiery evaluated was rated effective. McCulloch (2002) in a review of several studies done prior to 2000 concluded that support hose did play a positive role in reducing the symptoms of Chronic Venous Insufficiency (CVI) and leg complaints, but the selection of the type of hose and the severity of CVI was important. Consultation with a qualified health professional was recommended, because some support hose may actually be more harmful than helpful if they restrict lower leg venous return. Jungbeck et al., (2002) reported a four-week study to evaluate the effects of compression hosiery in workers who worked in standing professions. Subjective symptom ratings (leg pain, ankle swelling, tired and heavy leg, night cramps) and foot volumetry (foot volume, expelled volume, refilling rate) were objective measurements collected. Only the subjective ratings were statistically significantly. Study problems may have contributed to the lack of definitive findings for the objective measures as not all participants wore the stockings every day.

Partsch et al., (2004) evaluated types of support stockings that were most effective in reducing evening edema which occurs after prolonged standing. Evening edema was significantly reduced with compression stockings. Mosely et al., (2006) compared nurses and factory workers who stood for greater than 4h/d for three weeks while alternately wearing or not wearing stockings. Leg fluid volume was significantly lowered with stockings. Chiu and Wang (2007) , however, in a study of footwear (nurse shoes) with prolonged standing that included a condition where the subjects wore compression hosiery did not find that the physiological/biomechanical measurements were significantly changed with compression hosiery but only discomfort ratings were reduced. Flore, et al., (2007) examined the reactive oxygen metabolites (ROS) in workers wearing compression stockings in jobs requiring prolonged standing. Compression stockings showed limited effects on ROS in only the operating room nurses compared to the other workers.

Most of the studies reviewed support the use of compression stockings in the reduction of subjective complaints of leg fatigue, pain, and swelling in work requiring prolonged standing. The findings with the physiological/biomechanical measures are less convincing, although some positive findings in reduction of leg swelling and leg fluid volume have been reported. The benefits of using compression stockings are most pronounced in workers with Chronic Venous Insufficiency (CVI). Based on the results from these studies it would be difficult to recommend what the pressure ranges for effective stockings would be, although the higher compression surgical stockings may be more harmful and whether the wearing of stockings would have a preventive benefit in healthy workers. Major findings from the studies reviewed are listed in Table 5 .

Studies Examining Effectiveness of Wearing Support Stockings or Hosiery

B. Floor Surfaces, Mats, Shoes, and Shoe Inserts

The use of floor mats and shoe inserts during prolonged standing compared to prolonged standing on hard surfaces has been evaluated as an intervention procedure to reduce symptoms of discomfort, muscle pain, leg swelling, and tiredness. Biomechanical/physiological measurements have also been investigated for their usefulness as objective measures.

Redfern and Chaffin (1995) evaluated seven flooring conditions and one shoe insert condition in comparison with a concrete floor surface on factory workers who had jobs requiring standing for an entire 8h shift. The floor surfaces ranged from several types of vinyl and viscoelastic materials. Flooring did affect workers perception of discomfort and all floor surfaces were rated better than concrete. Cham and Redfern (2001) studied the relationship between workers’ subjective measures of discomfort and objective measures of fatigue and discomfort on different mat flooring conditions compared with a hard vinyl floor. Floor mats with increasing elasticity, decreased energy absorption and increased stiffness rated less discomfort and fatigue with prolonged standing. Krumwiede et al., (1998) investigated the effects of floor surfaces on comfort ratings in 3h of prolonged standing with 1h on each type of floor surface. Mat compressibility (ranged from 2.2 to 8.9%) was important in the comfort ratings and all surface types rated better than concrete. Madeleine et al., (1998) reported physiological and subjective measurements in a group of volunteers that stood on a hard surface versus soft surface for 2h while performing manual repetitive work tasks (preparing letters for sales campaign). Standing on the soft surface produced less pain and discomfort, which was supported by several of the physiological and biomechanical measurements. King (2002) and Orlando and King (2004 studied assembly line workers standing for 8h/d using different flooring conditions and also comparing floor mats and insoles. Mats and wearing in-soles were rated as more comfortable than standing on the hard floor. Age, height, and job tenure showed strong correlations with some measurements. Zander et al., (2004) measured changes in leg volume following an 8h shift with different flooring conditions. Floor conditions did not significantly affect lower leg volume measurements. Recently, Lin et al., (2012) used a study protocol similar (4 h prolonged standing) to the Cham and Redfern (2001) study, but added a field test component along with the laboratory study. Both floor type and shoe condition lowered foot discomfort and shank circumference increased linearly over the test periods. Significant changes were evident after 1h of prolonged standing in contrast to the Cham and Redfern (2001) study which reported changes in the 3 rd and 4 th hours.

Redfern and Cham (2000) reviewed 11 studies dating from 1972 to 2000 that had investigated prolonged standing with flooring types that used several different kinds of subjective and measurements. The authors concluded that the mixed and sometimes conflicting results from the many studies were most likely due to methodological differences, primarily with the duration of prolonged standing. Additionally, the biomechanical/physiological measures used have led to conflicting results so there is no consensus regarding the reliability/validity for any biomechanical or physiological measures.

Sahar et al., (2007) reviewed an extensive number of studies that had included insoles for the prevention of back pain. Only randomized control trials and crossover trials were considered. Using fairly rigid acceptance criteria, only 6 of 325 citations met the selection criteria and were reviewed for intervention effectiveness. Effectiveness of insoles was not evident but this conclusion may be influenced by not including studies with the authors’ acceptable methodology. Bahk et al., (2012) found that wearing non-heeled shoes reduced the prevalence of varicose veins but not the prevalence of nocturnal leg cramps.

The benefits of floor mats/shoe inserts appear primarily to be in reducing discomfort and fatigue after several hours of prolonged standing. The use of shoe inserts is rated about the same as the most comfortable floor mats and the greatest benefits from mats/shoe inserts may occur after several hours of prolonged standing. Table 6 lists the important results from the studies reviewed.

Studies Examining Effectiveness of Floor Surfaces, Mats, Shoes, and Inserts

C. Sit-Stand chairs and workstations

A number of national guidelines have suggested that sit-stand chairs with or without footrests/foot rails and/or adjustable workstations should be used for workers who must work in jobs requiring prolonged standing during the work shift. Some early studies reported conflicting results.

Irving (1982) in a survey of surgeons who stood for long periods of time during surgical procedures reported improvements in low back discomfort when using a standing/sitting pelvic-tilt chair. Nerhood and Thompson (1994) reported the results from a year-long study of workers that had sit-stand workstations installed at their company. Employees were categorized according to risk for discomfort which was determined by computer use and mobility. Discomfort ratings, injuries and illnesses were reduced. Whereas mobility was included in the assignment of the adjustable sit-stand workstations this factor was not reported in the results. Oude Vrielink et. al., 1994 , reported that sit-stand chairs were not an effective intervention during a 4h monotonous task when compared to standing. Both physiological/biomechanical and discomfort measures were evaluated but leg movement was not controlled in the experiment making it difficult to compare the conditions. Chester et al., 2002 , compared sitting, standing and a sit-stand chair and reported that the sit-stand chair condition increased leg volume. Study design problems (e.g., sit-stand chair position, tilt and no back rest, limited subject movement) suggest that the design of the sit-stand chair condition was not an effective intervention.

Recently more controlled studies and review articles have been published that have evaluated the intervention effectiveness of sit-stand work stations, but not necessarily with prolonged standing but also with prolonged sitting. Husemann et. al., 2009 reported from a randomized control trial (RCT) study that a sit-stand workstation (50% sitting; 25% standing; 25% break-office tasks) reduced physical and psychological complaints compared to a control group (75% seated; 25% break-office tasks). Robertson et al., (2013) conducted a RCT study that evaluated sit-stand workstations and ergonomics pre-training. Ergonomics trained participants (more mobility with mandatory standing) reported less musculoskeletal and visual discomfort than minimally trained participants. Both groups used sit-stand workstations, but there was no prolonged standing condition.

Karakolis and Callaghan (2014) reported a systematic review of studies that included a sit-stand workstation intervention on prolonged sitting, prolonged standing or a combination of both types. Although the studies reviewed involved office environments and not manufacturing processes the results showed sit-stand workstations lowered subjective discomforts. The review also determined that no optimal sit-stand ratio currently exists and that the optimal ratio may be specific for each worker depending on their personal and job requirements. The important results from the seven studies reviewed representative of the area reviewed are listed in Table 7 .

Studies Examining Effectiveness of Sit-Stand chairs and workstations.

Upon examination of the limited studies investigating the effectiveness of sit-stand chairs and workstations to reduce risk of MSDs, the effectiveness of these interventions is not clear. Conflicting results are likely due to study design weaknesses, such posture evaluation, measures of mobility, and ratios of standing to sitting. For example, none of the studies in manufacturing settings allowed the worker to use a dynamic posture during testing that allowed the worker to sit, stand, or lean against the chair, but rather the subject had to adopt a fixed posture (typically seated) for the duration of the testing. Data do suggest that use of sit-stand workstations should be considered as an ergonomic intervention for workers who must stand or sit for long periods of time in their work shift.

IV. Summary/Conclusions

Based on review of the literature there appears to be ample evidence that prolonged standing in the work place leads to a number of negative health outcomes. The studies consistently reported increased reports of low back pain, physical fatigue, muscle pain, leg swelling, tiredness, and body part discomfort due to prolonged standing. The findings from these studies were supported by intervention studies (e.g., compression stockings, floor surfaces, mats, insoles, sit/stand chairs) that show significant reductions in the subjective measures after implementation of the intervention. The findings from objective biomechanical and physiological studies of the effects of prolonged standing frequently correlate with subjective findings, but have not been conclusive. Considerable research has been devoted to trying to establish a biomechanical pathway for low back pain, but the final explanation is still elusive. EMG recordings of trunk muscles, Center of Pressure (COP) measurements using force platforms (posturography), and body kinematics have been used and the most promising result seems to be research involving the Gluteus Medius (GM) muscle group. The studies of prolonged standing and measurements of physical fatigue have shown some significant changes with the biomechanical/physiological measurements, but again there has been inconsistency.

Finally, there was general agreement in the reviewed literature that interventions can be effective, at least in reducing the subjective complaints from prolonged standing. Interventions that reduce the reports of low back pain and venous disorders would be the most effective in prevention of chronic health problems that could occur in older workers. In reviewing the studies examining the effectiveness of interventions, we concluded that dynamic movement appeared to be the best solution for reducing risk of these health problems due to prolonged standing. The ability for workers to “have movement” during work, such as walking around, or being able to easily shift from standing to sitting or leaning posture during the work shift seemed to be a common suggestion in nearly all of the literature but needs more research. In summary, we concluded the following:

There is significant evidence that prolonged standing at work (primarily in one place) increases risk of low back pain, cardiovascular problems, and pregnancy outcomes.

Interventions designed to reduce risk of adverse health outcomes due to prolonged standing can be effective. Research, however, with scientifically operational definitions of prolonged standing (e.g., hours/day, week, month) and improved design protocols are needed to determine which biomechanical/physiological measures are reliable and valid and correlate best with the subjective reports of effects from prolonged standing. Especially important would be experimental designs that would incorporate morning and evening measurements into biomechanical or physiological measures of prolonged standing over the course of a work period (e.g., day, week, month) while manipulating the dynamics of standing (e.g., mobility, sit-stand). Morning and evening measurements would allow for the evaluation of whether outcome measurements are within normal limits of recovery or developing into chronic conditions. An ideal study protocol would take measurements daily for a typical workweek, followed by 2 days rest with measurements re-taken the day of work return. Evaluation of extended work shifts beyond the normal 8 h day is also essential.

Workplaces should not be static. Work should be designed so that the worker can adopt various postures during the work. For example, the worker should be able to walk around rather than stand in one place, or a sit-stand chair/workstation should be provided. Also, the worker should be encouraged to modify their posture so that they mix sitting, standing, leaning, and use of a foot rail or footrest as much as possible.

A reliable characterization of prolonged standing is needed based on a standard workday. Various groups, such as the AORN and the Dutch researchers, have suggested time limits for prolonged standing, which would be effective, but we also believe that a proper work design that includes all aspects of ergonomic intervention is also necessary.

The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

• Andersen JH, Haahr JP, Frost P. Risk factors for more severe regional musculoskeletal symptoms: A two-year prospective study of a general working population. Arthritis & Rheumatism. 2007;56(4):1355–1364. doi: 10.1002/art.22513. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Balasubramanian V, Adalarasu K, Regulapati R. Comparing dynamic and stationary standing postures in an assembly task. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics. 2009;39(5):649–654. doi: 10.1016/j.ergon.2008.10.017. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bahk JW, Kim H, Jung-Choi K, Jung M, Lee I. Relationship between prolonged standing and symptoms of varicose veins and nocturnal leg cramps among women and men. Ergonomics. 2012;55(2):133–139. doi: 10.1080/00140139.2011.582957. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Best M, French G, Ciantar J, Didzys D, Fitzgerald C, Moore K, Roberts M. Work-related musculoskeletal disorders in hairdressers. Journal of Occupational Health and Safety Australia and New Zealand. 2002;18(313):67–76. [ Google Scholar ]
• Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS) Basic information on Standing at work. 2014 http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/ergonomics/standing/standing_basic/html .
• Cham R, Redfern MS. Effect of flooring on standing comfort and fatigue. Human factors. 2001;43(3):381–391. doi: 10.1518/001872001775898205. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chester MR, Rys MJ, Konz SA. Leg swelling, comfort and fatigue when sitting, standing, and sit/standing. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics. 2002;29(5):289–296. doi: 10.1016/S0169-8141(01)00069-5. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chiu MC, Wang MJJ. Professional footwear evaluation for clinical nurses. Applied Ergonomics. 2007;38(2):133–141. doi: 10.1016/j.apergo.2006.03.012. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Drury CG, Hsiao YL, Joseph C, Joshi S, Lapp J, Pennathur PR. Posture and performance: sitting vs. standing for security screening. Ergonomics. 2008;51(3):290. doi: 10.1080/00140130701628790. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Engels JA, van der Gulden JW, Senden TF, van’t Hof B. Work related risk factors for musculoskeletal complaints in the nursing profession: results of a questionnaire survey. Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 1996;53(9):636–641. doi: 10.1136/oem.53.9.636. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Eskenazi B, Fenster L, Wight S, English P, Windham GC, Swan SH. Physical exertion as a risk factor for spontaneous abortion. Epidemiology. 1994;5(1):6–13. doi: 10.1097/00001648-199401000-00003. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Flore R, Gerardino L, Santoliquido A, Pola R, Flex A, Di Campli C, Pola P, Tondi P. Enhanced oxidative stress in workers with a standing occupation. Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 2004;61:548–550. doi: 10.1136/oem.2003.008805. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Flore R, Gerardino L, Santoliquido A, Catananti C, Pola P, Tondi P. Reduction of oxidative stress by compression stockings in standing workers. Occupational Medicine. 2007;57:337–341. doi: 10.1093/occmed/kqm021. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Freitas SMSF, Wieczorek SA, Marchetti PH, Duarte M. Age-related changes in human postural control of prolonged standing. Gait & Posture. 2005;22(4):322–330. doi: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2004.11.001. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ha E, Cho SI, Park H, Chen D, Chen C, Wang L, Xu X, Christiani DC. Does standing at work during pregnancy result in reduced infant birth weight? Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 2002;44(9):815–821. doi: 10.1097/01.jom0000026642.83602.ae. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Halim I, Omar AR. Development of prolonged standing strain index to quantify risk levels of standing jobs. International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics-JOSE. 2012;18(1):85–96. doi: 10.1080/10803548.2012.11076917. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Henriksen TB, Hedegaard M, Secher NJ, Wilcox AJ. Standing at work and preterm delivery. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 1995a;102(3):198–206. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1995.tb09094.x. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Henriksen TB, Hedegaard M, Secher NJ. Standing and walking at work and birthweight. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica. 1995b;74(7):509–516. doi: 10.3109/00016349509024380. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hughes NL, Nelson A, Matz MW, Lloyd J. AORN Ergonomic Tool 4: Solutions for prolonged standing in perioperative settings. AORN Journal. 2011;93(6):767–774. doi: 10.1016/j.aorn.2010.08.029. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Husemann B, Von Mach CY, Borsotto D, Zepf KI, Scharnbacher J. Comparisons of musculoskeletal complaints and data entry between a sitting and sit-stand workstation paradigm. Human Factors. 2009;51(3):310–320. doi: 10.1177/0018720809338173. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• International Labour Organization. Your health and safety at work: Ergonomics. 2011 Retrieved: http://actrav.itcilo.org/actrav-english/telearn/osh/ergo/ergonomi.htm .
• Irving G. A standing/sitting pelvic tilt chair--new hope for back-weary surgeons? South African Medical Journal. 1992;82(2):131–132. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Jorgensen K, Hansen L, Lundager K, Winkel J. Low back muscle reactions to constrained standing in relation to shock absorbing properties of floor and shoes. In: Nielsen R, Jorgensen K, editors. Advances in industrial ergonomics and safety V. 1993. pp. 279–283. [ Google Scholar ]
• Jungbeck C, Peterson K, Danielsson G, Norgren L. Effects of compression hosiery in female workers with a standing profession. Phlebology. 2002;16(3):117–120. [ Google Scholar ]
• Karakolis T, Callaghan JP. The impact of sit-stand office workstations on worker discomfort and productivity: A review. Applied Ergonomics. 2014;45:799–806. doi: 10.1016/j.apergo.2013.10.001. doi:org/10.1016/j.apergo.2013.10.001. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• King PM. A comparison of the effects of floor mats and shoe in-soles on standing fatigue. Applied Ergonomics. 2002;33(5):477–484. doi: 10.1016/S0003-6870(02)00027-3. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Klebanoff MA, Shiono PH, Carey JC. The effect of physical activity during pregnancy on preterm delivery and birth weight. American journal of obstetrics and gynecology. 1990;163(5):1450–1456. doi: 10.1016/0002-9378(90)90604-6. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kraemer WJ, Volek JS, Bush JA, Gotshalk LA, Wagner PR, Gómez AL, Zatsiorsky VM, Duzrte M, Ratamess N, Mazzetti SA, Selle BJ. Influence of compression hosiery on physiological responses to standing fatigue in women. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 2000;32(11):1849–1858. doi: 10.1097/00005768-200011000-00006. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Krause N, Lynch JW, Kaplan GA, Cohen RD, Salonen R, Salonen JT. Standing at work and progression of carotid atherosclerosis. Scandinavian journal of work, environment & health. 2000;26(3):227–236. doi: 10.5271/sjweh.536. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Krijnen RM, de Boer EM, Adèr HJ, Osinga DS, Bruynzeel DP. Compression stockings and rubber floor mats: do they benefit workers with chronic venous insufficiency and a standing profession? Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 1997a;39(9):889–894. doi: 10.1097/00043764-199709000-00013. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Krijnen RM, de Boer EM, Adèr HJ, Bruynzeel DP. Venous insufficiency in male workers with a standing profession, Part 1: epidemiology. Dermatology. 1997b;194(2):111–120. doi: 10.1159/000246077. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Krijnen RM, de Boer EM, Adèr HJ, Bruynzeel DP. Venous insufficiency in male workers with a standing profession. Part 2: diurnal volume changes of the lower legs. Dermatology. 1997c;194(2):121–126. doi: 10.1159/000246078. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Krumwiede D, Konz S, Hinnen P. Standing comfort on floor mats. Occupational Ergonomics. 1998;1(2):135–143. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lin YH, Chen CY, Cho MH. Influence of shoe/floor conditions on lower leg circumference and subjective discomfort during prolonged standing. Applied Ergonomics. 2012;43:965–970. doi: 10.1016/j.apergo.2012.01.006. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• McDonald AD, McDonald JC, Armstrong B, Cherry NM, Nolin AD, Robert D. Prematurity and Work in Pregnancy. British Journal of Industrial Medicine. 1988a;45(1):56–62. doi: 10.1136/oem.45.1.56. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• McDonald AD, McDonald JC, Armstrong B, Cherry NM, Côté R, Lavoie J, Nolin AD, Robert D. Fetal death and work in pregnancy. British Journal of Industrial Medicine. 1988b;45(3):148–157. doi: 10.1136/oem.45.3.148. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• McCulloch J. Health risks associated with prolonged standing. Work. 2002;19(2):201–205. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Madeleine P, Voigt M, Arendt-Nielsen L. Subjective, physiological and biomechanical responses to prolonged manual work performed standing on hard and soft surfaces. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology. 1997;77(1–2):1–9. doi: 10.1007/s004210050292. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Marshall PWM, Patel H, Callaghan JP. Gluteus medius strength, endurance, and co-activation in the development of low back pain during prolonged standing. Human Movement Science. 2011;30(1):63–73. doi: 10.1016/j.humov.2010.08.017. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Meijsen P, Knibbe HJJ. Prolonged standing in the OR: A Dutch Research Study. AORN Journal. 2007;86(3):399–414. doi: 10.1016/j.aorn.2007.08.007. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Moseley A, Piller N, Walsh J. The effectiveness of below-the-knee support stockings for standing professions. Journal of Occupational Health and Safety Australia & New Zealand. 2006;22(4):335–340. [ Google Scholar ]
• Mozurkewich EL, Luke B, Avni M, Wolf FM. Working conditions and adverse pregnancy outcome: A meta-analysis. Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2000;95(4):623–635. doi: 10.1016/S0029-7844(99)00598-0. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nelson-Wong E, Gregory DE, Winter DA, Callaghan JP. Gluteus medius muscle activation patterns as a predictor of low back pain during standing. Clinical Biomechanics. 2008;23(5):545–553. doi: 10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2008.01.002. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nelson-Wong E, Callaghan JP. Changes in muscle activation patterns and subjective low back pain ratings during prolonged standing in response to an exercise intervention. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology. 2010a;20(6):1125–1133. doi: 10.1016/j.jelekin.2010.07.007. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nelson-Wong E, Callaghan JP. The impact of a sloped surface on low back pain during prolonged standing work: A biomechanical analysis. Applied Ergonomics. 2010b;41(6):787–795. doi: 10.1016/j.apergo.2010.01.005. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nelson-Wong E, Howarth SJ, Callaghan JP. Acute biomechanical responses to a prolonged standing exposure in a simulated occupational setting. Ergonomics. 2010c;53(9):1117–1128. doi: 10.1080/00140139.2010.500400. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nerhood HL, Thompson SW. Adjustable sit-stand workstations in the office. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual meeting. 1994;38:668–672. doi: 10.1177/154193129403801028. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ngomo S, Messing K, Perrault H, Comtois A. Orthostatic symptoms, blood pressure and working postures of factory and service workers over an observed workday. Applied Ergonomics. 2008;39(6):729–736. doi: 10.1016/j.apergo.2007.11.004. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Orlando A, King P. Relationship of demographic variables on perception of fatigue and discomfort following prolonged standing under various flooring conditions. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation. 2004;14(1):63–76. doi: 10.1023/B:JOOR.0000015011.39875.75. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Oude Vrielink HHE, Cloosterman SGM, van der Bunt JA, Krijnen RMA, van Dieën JH. Is a sit-stand seat an appropriate alternative in standing work situations? In: Aghazadeh F, editor. Advances in Industrial Ergonomics and Safety VI. Bristol, PA: Taylor & Francis; 1994. pp. 223–228. [ Google Scholar ]
• Palmer KT, Bonzini M, Harris EC, Linaker C, Bonde JP. Work activities and risk of prematurity, low birthweight, and pre-eclampsia: an updated review and meta-analysis. Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 2013;70(4):213–222. doi: 10.1136/oemed-2012-101032. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Partsch H, Winiger J, Lun B. Compression stockings reduce occupational leg swelling. Dermatologic surgery. 2004;30(5):737–743. doi: 10.1111/j.1524-4725.2004.30204.x. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Paul JA, Frings-Dresen MHW. Standing working posture compared in pregnant and non-pregnant conditions. Ergonomics. 1994;37(9):1563–1575. doi: 10.1080/00140139408964934. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pompeii LA, Savitz DA, Evenson KR, Rogers B, McMahon M. Physical exertion at work and the risk of preterm delivery and small-for-gestational-age birth. Obstetrics and gynecology. 2005;106(6):1279–1288. doi: 10.1097/01.AOG.0000189080.76998.f8. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Redfern MS, Chaffin DB. Influence of flooring on standing fatigue. Human Factors. 1995;37(3):570–581. doi: 10.1518/001872095779049417. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Redfern MS, Cham R. The influence of flooring on standing comfort and fatigue. AIHAJ - American Industrial Hygiene Association. 2000;61(5):700–708. doi: 10.1080/15298660008984580. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Reid CM, Bush PM, Karwowski W, Durrani SK. Occupational postural activity and lower extremity discomfort: A review. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics. 2010;40:247–256. doi: 10.016/j.ergon.2010.01.003. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Robertson MM, Cirello VM, Garabet AM. Office ergonomics training and a sit-stand workstation: Effects on musculoskeletal and visual symptoms and performance of office workers. Applied Ergonomics. 2013;44:73–85. doi: 10.1016/j.apergo.2012.05.001. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Roelofs A, Straker L. The experience of musculoskeletal discomfort amongst bank tellers who just sit, just stand or sit and stand at work. Ergonomics SA. 2002;14(2):11–29. [ Google Scholar ]
• Roffey DM, Wai EK, Bishop P, Kwon BK, Dagenais S. Causal assessment of occupational standing or walking and low back pain: results of a systematic review. The Spine Journal. 2010;10(3):262–272. doi: 10.1016/j.spinee.2009.12.023. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sahar T, Cohen MJ, Ne’eman V, Kandel L, Odebiyi DO, Lev I, Lahad A. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Vol. 4. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 2007. Insoles for prevention and treatment of back pain; pp. 1–29. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sudoł-Szopińska I, Panorska AK, Koziński P, Błachowiak K. Work-related chronic venous disease in office and bakery workers. Occupational Ergonomics. 2007;7(2):125–137. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sudoł-Szopińska I, Bogdan A, Szopiński T, Panorska AK, Kołodziejczak M. Prevalence of chronic venous disorders among employees working in prolonged sitting and standing postures. International Journal of Occupational Safety & Ergonomics. 2011;17(2):165–173. doi: 10.1080/10803548.2011.11076887. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Teitelman AM, Welch LS, Hellenbrand KG, Bracken MB. Effect of maternal work activity on preterm birth and low birth weight. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1990;131(1):104–113. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a115463. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tissot F, Messing K, Stock S. Standing, sitting and associated working conditions in the Quebec population in 1998. Ergonomics. 2005;48(3):249–269. doi: 10.1080/00140130512331326799. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tissot F, Messing K, Stock S. Studying the relationship between low back pain and working postures among those who stand and those who sit most of the working day. Ergonomics. 2009;52(11):1402–1418. doi: 10.1080/00140130903141204. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tomei F, Baccolo TP, Tomao E, Palmi S, Rosati MV. Chronic venous disorders and occupation. American Journal of Industrial Medicine. 1999;36(6):653–665. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0274(199912)36:6&#x0003c;653::AID-AJIM8&#x0003e;3.0.CO2-P. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tüchsen F, Krause N, Hannerz H, Burr H, Kristensen TS. Standing at work and varicose veins. Scandinavian journal of work, environment & health. 2000;26(5):414–420. doi: 10.5271/sjweh.562. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Werner RA, Gell N, Hartigan A, Wiggermann N, Keyserling WM. Risk factors for foot and ankle disorders among assembly plant workers. American Journal of Industrial Medicine. 2010;53:1233–1239. doi: 10.1002/ajim.20898. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Yip VYB. New low back pain in nurses: work activities, work stress and sedentary lifestyle. Journal of Advanced Nursing. 2004;46(4):430–440. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2648.2004.03009.x. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Zander JE, King PM, Ezenwa B. Influence of flooring conditions on lower leg volume following prolonged standing. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics. 2004;34:279–288. doi: 10.1016/j.ergon.2004.04. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
• View on publisher site
• PDF (209.0 KB)
• Collections

Similar articles

Cited by other articles, links to ncbi databases.

• Download .nbib .nbib
• Format: AMA APA MLA NLM

Add to Collections