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Topics in Land Surveying

Land surveying topics directory, surveying equipment and technology.

Explore the latest advancements in GPS, total stations, drones, LiDAR, and laser scanners.

Surveying Software

Discover software for CAD, GIS, and data analysis, including AutoCAD, Trimble Business Center, and ArcGIS.

Land Surveying Techniques

Learn about boundary surveys, topographic surveys, construction staking, and hydrographic surveying.

Geodetic Surveying

Understand the principles of geodetic measurements and the Earth's shape and size.

Legal Aspects of Surveying

Information about land boundaries, easements, property law, and the legal responsibilities of surveyors.

Surveying Certifications and Licensure

Steps to become a licensed surveyor, including exams like the NCEES FS and PS exams.

Construction Surveying

Techniques and tools used in construction projects, including layout and alignment for infrastructure.

Topographic Surveying

Capturing the physical features of the land and creating maps for planning and development.

Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry

Using aerial imagery and satellite data for mapping and analysis.

Cadastral Surveying

Detailed surveying of property lines and documentation of land ownership.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

Integrating surveying data with GIS technology for spatial analysis and mapping.

Drones and UAVs in Surveying

Using unmanned aerial vehicles for aerial surveys, mapping, and data collection.

Land Surveying History and Evolution

The development of surveying techniques and technology over time.

Hydrographic Surveying

Surveying bodies of water to measure depth, topography, and underwater features.

Surveying Standards and Ethics

Best practices, standards, and ethical guidelines for professional surveyors.

Environmental and Sustainable Surveying

Practices that consider environmental impact and sustainability in surveying projects.

3D Laser Scanning

Using laser technology to create 3D models of terrain and structures.

BIM (Building Information Modeling) in Surveying

Integrating BIM with surveying data for construction and infrastructure projects.

Surveying Job Opportunities and Career Development

Information on job prospects, career paths, and professional development in surveying.

Surveying Instruments Calibration and Maintenance

Proper care and calibration of surveying equipment to ensure accuracy and longevity.

Boundary Dispute Resolution

Techniques and legal considerations for resolving disputes over property lines and boundaries.

Surveying for Renewable Energy Projects

Methods for surveying sites for solar, wind, and other renewable energy installations.

Precision Agriculture Surveying

Utilizing surveying technology for agricultural planning and crop management.

Underground Utility Surveying

Techniques for locating and mapping underground utilities and infrastructure.

Surveying in Urban Planning

The role of surveying in city planning, zoning, and urban development.

Vertical and High-Rise Building Surveying

Challenges and techniques for surveying tall structures and skyscrapers.

Marine and Coastal Surveying

Techniques for surveying coastal areas, harbors, and offshore projects.

Surveying in Disaster Management

How surveying contributes to disaster preparedness, response, and recovery.

Aerial Mapping and Photogrammetric Techniques

Advanced methods for creating detailed maps from aerial imagery.

Surveying Education and Training Programs

Information on academic programs, workshops, and certifications for surveyors.

Heritage and Archaeological Surveying

Techniques for surveying historical sites and archaeological projects.

Land Development and Subdivision Surveying

Processes involved in subdividing land for residential and commercial development.

Surveying in Transportation Infrastructure

The role of surveying in planning and constructing roads, bridges, and railways.

Surveying Data Analysis and Management

Tools and methods for analyzing and managing large sets of surveying data.

Ethical Challenges in Land Surveying

Common ethical dilemmas and decision-making processes for surveyors.

Remote Monitoring and Sensing in Surveying

Using remote sensing technology for real-time monitoring of survey sites.

Surveying for Environmental Impact Assessments

How surveying supports environmental impact studies for various projects.

Advancements in GNSS Technology

Latest developments in Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) for surveying.

Surveying for Oil and Gas Exploration

Techniques for surveying land and sea for oil and gas exploration.

Military and Defense Surveying Applications

How surveying is used in military operations and defense planning.

Cross-Border and International Surveying

Challenges and methodologies for surveying across international borders.

Surveying for Smart Cities

The integration of surveying technology in the development of smart city infrastructure.

LiDAR vs. Photogrammetry: Pros and Cons

A comparison of LiDAR and photogrammetry for different surveying applications.

Surveying in Extreme Environments

Techniques for surveying in challenging environments like deserts, mountains, and polar regions.

Surveying Standards and Regulations

An overview of national and international standards governing surveying practices.

Surveying for Flood Risk Assessment

Techniques for assessing flood risk and mapping flood-prone areas.

Historical Land Records and Surveying

The importance of historical land records in modern surveying.

Surveying Equipment Innovations

The latest innovations and emerging trends in surveying equipment design and functionality.

Surveying for Infrastructure Rehabilitation

Surveying techniques for assessing and rehabilitating aging infrastructure.

Environmental Geospatial Modeling

Using surveying data for geospatial modeling of environmental systems and landscapes.

Articles and Resources

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Circumferentor (aka "Surveyor's Compass)

Levels and levelling in surveying: a comprehensive guide.

2015 ALTA Survey Correction

What is a Land Surveyor Compass? A Comprehensive History to Modern Times

Affidavit of Merit

Improvement location report (ilr).

Boundary Dispute

Gunter's chain.

Tape Survey - What is a Tape Survey?

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Land surveyor safety, how to read a land survey, land surveying markers & monumentation.

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Surveying engineering.

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Surveying Journals and Magazines

• Finding Books
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• Photogrammetry and remote sensing
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• Geophysical - Earth Sciences
• The American Surveyor Trade journal that contains topical news and information, technology expertise, and product reviews involving all aspects of land surveying.
• Cartography and Geographic Information Science (CaGIS) Journal American Congress on Surveying and Mapping. the official publication of the Cartography and Geographic Information Society (CaGIS), a member organization of the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping (ACSM). The Cartography and Geographic Information Society supports research, education, and practices that improve the understanding, creation, analysis, and use of maps and geographic information. The society serves as a forum for the exchange of original concepts, techniques, approaches, and experiences by those who design, implement, and use geospatial technologies through the publication of authoritative articles and international papers. The role of the CaGIS journal is to facilitate these objectives by disseminating results and reports in these areas of interest.
• ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information An international, open access journal on geo-information. It is a journal of the ISPRS (International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing) and is published monthly online by MDPI
• Journal of Surveying and Mapping Engineering Journal of Surveying and Mapping Engineering (JSME) aims to promote the latest research and developments in the area of Measurement Engineering and their applications. Scholars from all relevant academic fields are invited to submit high-quality manuscripts that describe the latest research results or innovations.
• Journal of Surveying Engineering American Society of Civil Engineers. Covers civil engineering developments in surveying and mapping, as well as such related fields as cartographic and interplanetary surveying. 1983-present available online via Penn State.
• Point of Beginning (POB) Point of Beginning serves the surveying and mapping community. We are dedicated to helping our industry succeed through our coverage of new applications and evolving technologies, practical solutions to surveying and mapping problems, and business, legal and educational issues.
• Professional Surveyor Professional Surveyor magazine is no longer being published, but all the articles since 1996 are available online, including our former publications, Aerial Mapping, Red Pages, Outlook, and GIS Monitor.
• Surveying and Land Information Science (SaLIS) Journal A Scientific and Technical Journal co-owned by the American Association for Geodetic Surveying (AAGS) and the Geographic and Land Information Society (GLIS) devoted to reporting research conducted to advance geodetic surveying, land surveying, and geographic information systems. Selected years available online through Penn State.
• xyHt (Positioning and Measurement, Elevated) xyHt is an evolving resource for professionals in the fields of positioning and measurement. xyHt comes in the form of a monthly print magazine as well as exclusive online content, relevant and targeted news, and social media interaction.
• Geomatica: The Journal of Geospatial Information Science, Technology and Practice (formerly CISM Journal ACSGC) The official quarterly publication of the Canadian Institute of Geomatics. It is the oldest surveying and mapping publication in Canada and was first published in 1922 as the Journal of the Dominion Land Surveyors’ Association.
• GPS Solutions A quarterly scientific journal covering system design issues and a full range of current and emerging applications of global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) such as GPS, GLONASS, Galileo and various augmentations.
• International Association of Geodesy Symposia Peer-reviewed proceedings of selected symposia organized by the International Association of Geodesy. It deals primarily with topics related to Geodesy as applied to the Earth Sciences : terrestrial reference frame, Earth gravity field, Geodynamics and Earth rotation, Positioning and engineering applications. more... less... Ask a Librarian (https://libraries.psu.edu/ask) about acquiring copies of titles.
• Journal of Applied Geodesy Peer-reviewed research articles in the area of application of geodesy to engineering and other natural sciences. It publishes innovative contributions on sensor developments, multi-sensor systems and sensor data fusion focusing on the capture of georeferenced data.
• Journal of Geodesy An international journal concerned with the study of scientific problems of geodesy and related interdisciplinary sciences. It presents peer-reviewed papers on theoretical or modeling studies, and on results of experiments and interpretations.
• Journal of Geodetic Science Geodetic research from a broad range of topics and approaches including Geodetic Networks, Deformation analysis, Adjustment theory and application of mathematical statistics, Satellite Geodesy, Physical Geodesy, Geodynamics, and Geometric Geodesy. [Open access]
• Marine Geodesy An international journal of ocean surveys, mapping, and sensing
• Studia Geophysica et Geodaetica An international journal covering all aspects of geophysics, meteorology and climatology, and of geodesy. Studia publishes theoretical and methodological contributions, which are of interest for academia as well as industry.
• Survey Review An international journal that has been published since 1931, and brings together research, theory and practice of positioning and measurement, engineering surveying, cadastre and land management, and spatial information management.
• IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing A monthly publication that focuses on the theory, concepts, and techniques of science and engineering as applied to sensing the land, oceans, atmosphere, and space; and the processing, interpretation, and dissemination of this information.
• International Journal of Remote Sensing Concerned with the theory, science and technology of remote sensing and novel applications of remotely sensed data. The journal’s focus includes remote sensing of the atmosphere, biosphere, cryosphere and the terrestrial earth, as well as human modifications to the earth system.
• ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing Provides a channel of communication for scientists and professionals in all countries working in the many disciplines that employ photogrammetry, remote sensing, spatial information systems, computer vision, and related fields
• Journal of Remote Sensing and GIS An international journal which contains original research papers, review papers, short communications and book reviews that focus on practical and theoretical issues, collection, analysis, modeling, interpretation and display of spatial data, connections between GIS and related technologies and also new GIS applications which help to solve current issues and problems.
• Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing The official journal for imaging and geospatial information science and technology. Included in the journal on a regular basis are a Highlight Article, the popular columns “Grids & Datums” and “Mapping Matters”, and peer reviewed scientific papers.
• Photogrammetric Record An international journal containing original, independently and rapidly refereed articles that reflect modern advancements in photogrammetry, 3D imaging, computer vision, and other related non-contact fields.
• Remote Sensing An open access journal about the science and application of remote sensing technology, and is published monthly online by MDPI.
• Sensors International, peer-reviewed, open access journal on the science and technology of sensors and biosensors. Sensors is published monthly online by MDPI.
• Cartography and Geographic Information Science The official publication of the Cartography and Geographic Information Society (CaGIS).
• GeoInformatica GeoInformatica provides an effective forum for disseminating original and fundamental research and experience in the expanding uses of computer science for spatial studies.
• International Journal of Geographical Information Science Intended to interest those who research fundamental and computational issues of geographic information, as well as issues related to the design, implementation and use of geographical information for monitoring, prediction and decision making.
• Journal of Geographic Systems Dedicated to geographical information, analysis, theory, and decision making, aims to encourage and promote high quality scholarship on important theoretical and practical issues in regional science, geography, the environmental sciences, and planning.
• Transactions in GIS An international, peer-reviewed journal that publishes original research articles, review articles, and short technical notes on the latest advances and best practices in the spatial sciences.
• Atmosphere-Ocean The principal scientific journal of the Canadian Meteorological and Oceanographic Society (CMOS).
• Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Monthly journal that reports current research in all aspects of earth science, including geomatics, geophysics, and geology.
• Earth, Planets and Space Covers scientific articles in Earth and Planetary Sciences, particularly geomagnetism, aeronomy, space science, seismology, volcanology, geodesy, and planetary science. [Open access]
• Earth and Planetary Science Letters Focus is on physical and chemical processes, the evolution and general properties of the Earth and planets - from their deep interiors to their atmospheres.
• Earth Surface Processes and Landforms Journal of the British Society for Geomorphology (BSG). Foci include the physical geography of our river, valley, glacier, mountain, hill, slope, coast, desert and estuary environments; alongside responses to Holocene, Pleistocene or Quaternary environmental change.
• Geophysical Journal International Publishes research papers, express letters, invited review papers and book reviews on all aspects of theoretical, computational, applied and observational geophysics.
• Geophysical Research Letters
• Journal of Geodynamics An international and interdisciplinary forum for the publication of results and discussions of solid earth research in geodetic, geophysical, geological and geochemical geodynamics, with special emphasis on the large scale processes involved.
• Journal of Geophysical Research Publishes original scientific research on the physical, chemical, and biological processes that contribute to the understanding of the Earth, Sun, and solar system and all of their environments and components.
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Fundamentals of Surveying: Land Surveying, GIS and Geomatics

As the land surveying profession evolves to meet the changing needs of a high-tech world, advances in data collection and computing power support increasing demand for comprehensive geographic information. In addition to measuring distances and defining boundary lines, multiple geospatial disciplines are used today to map above ground and underground, inside and outside, in two and three dimensions.

The use of photogrammetry, remote sensing, LiDAR, GPS/GNSS, robotic total stations and other technology offer new opportunities for land surveyors to gather highly precise and accurate spatial data. Complex relational geodatabases called geographic information systems (GIS) then integrate, manage and analyze this large volume of data to serve many applications.

As geospatial technology continues to develop, the terminology used in the industry is struggling to keep up. Traditionally, land surveying refers to using applied mathematics to measure relative vertical and horizontal positions to map the earth’s surface and to mark boundaries; however, the methods used today to measure and collect geographic data have moved far beyond the original Gunter’s chain and surveyor’s compass.

With the introduction of new tools, the lines between engineering, land surveying, and GIS sometimes overlap and a broader geospatial definition is the new norm. To better represent the range of knowledge in use today, the term geomatics, or geomatics engineering, is used to refer to multiple technology disciplines in use by surveyors, while GIS refer specifically to the hardware, software and databases that store layers of geographic data and make them accessible to users.

Lines Blur Between Geospatial Disciplines

Confusion regarding the differences between various geospatial disciplines is not new, but it is getting worse as more kinds of technology are added to the mix. However, it is safe to say the lines between the specialties are blurring.

Should LiDAR, mobile mapping, asset management, BIM, and drone operations be considered parts of surveying? Should every area of expertise require a license? That remains to be seen. Thankfully, by defining the essential skills required to perform tasks within each area, the U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) provides a foundation for further discussion.

To meet increased demand for geospatial professionals, the DOL released its Geospatial Technology Competency Model (GTCM) in July 2010 and updated its contents in 2014 and 2018. The GTCM outlines the requirements for geospatial engineers and the need for more concentrated education and interdisciplinary training in the geospatial profession. It was the first federally endorsed national model for a geospatial curriculum.

Since then, a number of higher education institutions across the country have revamped their geospatial programs, often under the umbrella of the Engineering Department, to include GIS certificates and geomatics four-year degrees, graduate degrees, and Ph.D. programs for those interested in teaching and research.

The study of geomatics includes knowledge and tools from multiple scientific disciplines, including land surveying and GIS. In recent years, integrated coursework helped create an awareness of how the numerous specialties relate to each other. The need for a thorough understanding of the interactions between many factors is driving the growth of geomatics and is necessary to meet the needs of sustainable environment-friendly development.

What is Geomatics?

In the U.S., the term “geospatial” is commonly used to refer to a broad range of geography-related technologies used in everything from homeland security to flood plain mapping. The lesser-known phrase “ geomatic engineering ” is an all-inclusive description of the science that comprises photogrammetry, GIS, surveying, remote sensing, satellite navigation, geodesy, GPS/GNSS, LiDAR, and mapping and cartography. The study of geomatics also incorporates mathematics, computer science, and engineering.

The traditional university structure of subject matter “silos” was an obstacle to the development of comprehensive geomatic engineering programs in the U.S., although the concept has been popular in Canada since the 1990’s. In the U.S., expanding the scope of STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) is helping to form a solid foundation of understanding for the further study of geomatics.

Geomatics engineering combines the use of spatial information with the practical application of scientific and technical knowledge. In the broadest definition, geomatics deals with measurements in the context of the Earth; however, to plan and complete major infrastructure projects, engineering firms need more than just data. They use accurate spatial information combined with other technology to make decisions and arrive at the optimal approach to any project. Applying geomatics tools to solve real-world problems requires an intimate knowledge of both the problem and of the geomatics technologies available.

The study of geomatics prepares students for job opportunities in an expanding number of industries that use geospatial data, such as oil and gas, space exploration, environment, engineering, architecture, and facilities management, and non-traditional fields such as health and finance. A person with this integrated knowledge can help almost every industry to become more accurate and more efficient, with better faster solutions. As our reliance on geospatial information in our daily lives continues to increase for everything from navigation to national security, geomatics experts will be in demand on a global scale.

As an example, the Geomatics Engineering and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) graduate program at the University of Colorado Denver (UCD) is administered through the Department of Civil Engineering, entirely online through Internet-based courseware and web-conferencing technologies. Before 2012, few classes crossed over between the individual engineering and surveying practices. With new capabilities in software and technology, integrated coursework leading to an awareness of how the specialties relate to each other is increasingly valuable.

By creating a holistic approach to geomatics education, as well as improving the process to establish credentials, higher education institutions are producing well-rounded professionals with the ability to perform services and advance scientific development in all interrelated areas.

What are Geographic Information Systems?

GIS refers to an information system used to store and manage geographic data collected in the field or gathered from other data sources, such as satellite imagery, demographics, population statistics, tax parcels, road networks, land use/land cover maps, etc.

The power of GIS lies in the ability to view and analyze multiple data layers in relation to one another. In addition, the software can be used to create more spatial data by digitizing roads, buildings and streams viewed on maps or imagery. Relational databases are useful for answering queries to extract information from the data.

For example, to select a location for a new retail store, the company may query the database to extract all areas that meet a certain criterion for population and average household income.

There is more geographic data available today than ever before, thanks to high-powered scanners, robotic total stations, large-format aerial cameras, satellites, drones, etc. Without geographic information systems, managing this large volume of data would be an impossible task, and the full value of the information could easily be overlooked.

Land surveyors use GIS to improve efficiency and facilitate project planning before they start. Reviewing zoning, road networks and environmentally sensitive areas or researching historical maps can be part of the pre-field work investigation. During a project, surveyors use GIS to monitor progress of their own data collection efforts to avoid data gaps.

The development of the first GIS in the ’60s dramatically changed how geographic data are used. By keeping data in a centralized location in a compatible format, multiple users can access the information. GIS was a breakthrough for improved management, storage and analysis of layers of geographic data and today GIS is a separate geospatial discipline focusing on hardware, software and relational databases.

In a different context, the term GIS can also mean Geographic Information Science, which refers to the science behind the data structures and computational techniques that allow geographic information systems to collect, store and manage data. In 2006, the American Association of Geographers released the Geographic Information Science and Technology Body of Knowledge (GIS&T BoK) . Used as a foundation for geospatial curriculum, the BoK records all areas of knowledge and abilities that make up the field of geospatial technology. Under the guidance of the University Consortium of Geographic Information Science (UCGIS) , the digital form of the GIS&T BoK launched in 2016 is continuously updated and augmented to reflect evolving technology.

Enhanced Efficiency and Better Results

In North America, a typical large infrastructure project might encompass the construction of a new pipeline or electric transmission line that impacts many constituencies. The construction may advance through a variety of topography and land cover, intersect roads and streams, and affect population centers.

If the solution provider takes the time to fully understand the situation before communicating the options, the resulting impacts to the surrounding area — including people, wildlife, land and water — should be minimized.

Geomatics encompasses a broader range of scientific and technical expertise. To optimize the project results, an engineering firm utilizes multiple kinds of skills, such as land surveying, LiDAR processing and analysis, satellite image processing, and GIS services, during the project design phase and continuing through construction and implementation. The combined use of all the geographic information available results in efficient planning and more accurate results.

Our technical capabilities to measure everything means more information feeding into geodatabases, which allows the interconnectedness of all facets of our communities to be analyzed, displayed, and leveraged to support smarter decisions.

Although sometimes regarded as separate areas of expertise, land surveying and GIS are complementary disciplines, as are LiDAR, photogrammetry, remote sensing, etc. As all contribute to an integrated knowledge base, the whole picture is more valuable than the sum of its parts when measuring, designing and building our environment.

This article was originally posted on www.pobonline.com.

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Linda Duffy is president of Apropos Research, Golden, Colo. (www.aproposresearch.com), an independent market research firm that provides market research and marketing communications services to the geospatial and remote sensing community. She can be reached at [email protected].

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Home > Books > Trends in Geomatics - An Earth Science Perspective

Introduction Chapter: From Land Surveying to Geomatics - Multidisciplinary Technological Trends

Submitted: 30 October 2018 Published: 26 January 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.82424

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Trends in Geomatics - An Earth Science Perspective

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1. Growing technological trends in geomatics

Substantial work has been done by the geomatics community to evaluate and develop mechanisms and interrelationships that are required for integrating data, procedures, and protocols in an effective way. Targeting higher levels of integration and coordination with domains is the link that is found to be efficient in connecting geomatics communities, remote sensing, GIS, and global navigation systems. It attempts to achieve the desired level of effectiveness by providing low-cost, highly efficient, highly accurate systems. This integration can help with the ability of freely exchanging all kinds of geospatial data and information, through accessing various data sources and systems over networks. This includes the ability of processing large volumes of data and analyzing it through utilization of effective hardware and software. This can help with achieving a combined decision-making approach which incorporates all user classes.

The growing trends in geomatics technology are of special importance, because they bring many challenges and opportunities to the user community. The user community can be application users, developers, or technology integrators, in addition to educators. All these communities are contributing to the development of geomatics through providing new approaches and means that leads to progressive advancement in the field, especially in the last few decades. An increasingly important and popular development is in geomatics education and the use of technological means to equip future generations with the foundations to excel in this important domain. Geomatics, hydrography, or applied earth sciences all address the fields of geomatics, whether it be global navigation and positioning technologies, geospatial information technologies, remote sensing technologies, or photogrammetry and field surveying technologies, together with advanced training that supports the moving trends in the important domain. Four major aspects of technology development share the importance of helping wider application and the use of geomatics: (1) environmental monitoring and detecting what changes have occurred, over a specific timeframe, (2) identifying and filling gaps in the user community application cycle, (3) measuring and planning for few advancement in form software and hardware to address the growing user community, and (4) assessing the current level of utilization and adoption of technology. Techniques to utilize geomatics technologies to solve day-to-day issues are on the rise; as such the ease of technological tools are also on the rise, because of increasing versatility in manipulating digital data and increasing computing power. Still, some work needs to be done for the determination of the qualitative accuracy of the different geomatics data collection tools, along with ancillary data acquisition system. The primary objective of this work was to highlight the different levels of ongoing trends in the field of geomatics technology and what type of change has occurred over the recent decades. The main objectives were (1) to provide coverage for some of the important trends in geomatics technology that might influence the user community in all the aspects associated with the themes of geomatics collectively, (2) to highlight the issue of trends in geomatics education, and (3) to perform an evaluation of the role of public participation in geomatics technologies.

2. Data remains central in geomatics

Geomatics aims to secure an automated process which will allow for using different data products, services, and tools across and beyond organizational boundaries. This helps by making data and information available for all the three levels involved in decision-making and acquisition processing, whether at the local level, provincial level, or at the state or country level. Geomatics systems provide integration between hardware, software, and user that take into consideration spatial data storage manipulation, analysis, and visualization. The Internet has played a major role in connecting systems together over a common network protocol, that is, Transmission Control Protocol-Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). This protocol has truly revolutionized the era of information technology; as a result a great deal of interest toward disaster management applications using Internet infrastructure is rapidly evolving. This advancement in Internet technology in addition to the other advances in high-speed broadband Internet-added capabilities has significantly contributed for data interoperability for disaster management applications. Geomatics is a science related to the techniques related to urban data in its digital form, which includes spatial or geographic information systems, including the collection of urban information and work on processing, analysis, and presentation, and the formation of maps and management of urban data. Due to the evolution of information and communication technologies, this has led to the development of geographic information systems and maps and geomatics. Traditional geography has evolved, and Earth observation activities have evolved considerably. Satellites are being used for Earth observation and remote sensing. The use of modern technologies results in a huge amount of data that must be processed and analyzed so that they can be used, and this data is processed in several ways. Geomatics (geos: Earth; matics: informatics) can satisfy such requirements. Geomatics include the fields of mapping, surveying, remote sensing (LiDAR or HDS scanning), hydrography, photogrammetry, global positioning systems (GPS), and geographic information systems (GIS).

3. Location and user information

In geomatics location is the main factor which is used to integrate a very wide range of data for spatial analysis and visualization. Geometrics engineers apply geometrical principles to spatial information, managing spatial data infrastructures of various types, whether local, regional, or global. The extensive availability and the use of sophisticated technologies, such as global navigation satellite systems (GNSS), remote sensing, and geographical information systems (GIS), increase the precision and productivity of the profession.

Although land surveying uses direct contact with everything measured, remote sensing is a type of measurement that collects data from the air using LiDAR, from the ground with high-definition laser scanning (HDS), or from an automobile using mobile mapping. Although LiDAR can survey high large areas in a short time, it is limited to the acquisition system altitude and swath. On the other hand, HDS equipment mounted on survey tripods is operated similarly to a surveyor’s robotic total station. The move from one control point to another can gather up to 50000 points per second, depending on the scanner of the data. HDS has found many applications in different fields from architectural modeling, historical preservation, and civil engineering design to food processing and manufacturing, industrial renovation, and mechanical engineering designs. Photogrammetry combines with LiDAR oftentimes by the high-resolution pictures taken from an aircraft, which is hundreds of feet from the ground. The overlapping of images and their association with aerial panels to control the surface survey result in data processing, correction, and utilization. Hydrography uses a combination of land-based GPS control, ship-mounted GPS receivers, and sounding equipment to map accurately the floor of bodies of water. The use of these geomatics elements or any combination thereof, together under a layer scheme for design purposes or into a geographic information system (GIS), leads to best analysis of our three-dimensional world. Database information are combined together with spatial information about a particular structure or object feature within GIS to provide for analyzing or tracking of features in our environment. Geodesy is a mathematical science that determines the shape and size of the earth and the nature of the earth’s gravity. The use of geomatics and its sophistication with the techniques are evolving and continue because of the need to integrate them with modern technologies to be used in several fields, including artificial intelligence, geo-analysis, and geospatial information. The availability of more sensors as a result of their low cost under the Internet, free and open source objects and software, and the availability of high-performance infrastructure all led to the development of geometrics. It is a science that includes many important aspects, so we focus on all geomatics trends.

4. Is there any way forward?

Geomatics approaches and products have been widely used for many applications. This book targets many groups that are of interest to the geomatics user community. This book highlights various trends in the user side, focusing on public participation (GIS); in the geodesy and navigation sides, focusing on some mathematical modeling for geodesy; and in the growing trend of geomatics education, and a focus to provide detailed knowledge for future generation on best available solutions and best practices that utilize geomatics technologies is needed.

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Although the environment has remained at the forefront of scientific interest for well over four decades (e.g., [ 1 ]), it is not until this decade that remote sensing of the environment using geodetic methods started gaining momentum.

We must admit with humility that, while number is purely a product of our minds, space has a reality outside our minds, so that we cannot completely prescribe its properties a priori. — Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855)

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Research at the School of Surveying

The School of Surveying at Otago is research active in the fields of Antarctic science, geospatial science, geodetic and surveying science, hydrographic surveying, land tenure and cadastral studies and land engineering and urban development.

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Research at surveying encompasses scientific and humanities approaches to land and sea. More specifically, aspects of research in measurement and geospatial sciences run alongside research in land tenure and urban development.

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Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in drinking water in Southeast Los Angeles: Industrial legacy and environmental justice

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent chemicals of increasing concern to human health. PFAS contamination in water systems has been linked to a variety of sources including hydrocarbon fire suppression activities, industrial and military land uses, agricultural applications of biosolids, and consumer products. To assess PFAS in California tap water, we collected 60 water samples from inside homes in four different geographic regions, both urban and rural. We selected mostly small water systems with known history of industrial chemical or pesticide contamination and that served socioeconomically disadvantaged communities. Thirty percent of the tap water samples (18) had a detection of at least one of the 32 targeted PFAS and most detections (89 %) occurred in heavily industrialized Southeast Los Angeles (SELA). The residents of SELA are predominately Latino and low-income. Concentrations of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) ranged from 6.8 to 13.6 ng/L and 9.4–17.8 ng/L, respectively in SELA and were higher than State (PFOA: 0.007 ng/L; PFOS: 1.0 ng/L) and national health-based goals (zero). To look for geographic patterns, we mapped potential sources of PFAS contamination, such as chrome plating facilities, airports, landfills, and refineries, located near the SELA water systems; consistent with the multiple potential sources in the area, no clear spatial associations were observed. The results indicate the importance of systematic testing of PFAS in tap water, continued development of PFAS regulatory standards and advisories for a greater number of compounds, improved drinking-water treatments to mitigate potential health threats to communities, especially in socioeconomically disadvantaged and industrialized areas.

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